Current practices underestimate environmental exposures to methamphetamine: inhalation exposures are important

Abstract

Current practice for determining the exposure to methamphetamine in contaminated homes relies on the analysis of surface wipe sample to address direct contact exposures. The movement of methamphetamine into the air phase, and the potential for inhalation exposures to occur within residential homes contaminated from former clandestine manufacture or smoking of methamphetamine has been generally poorly characterised and understood. All available risk-based guidelines for determining safe levels of methamphetamine in residential properties do not include any consideration of the inhalation pathway as an exposure route. This study showed that methamphetamine can readily move from contaminated materials in a home into the air phase. This movement of methamphetamine into the air phase provides both an exposure pathway and a mechanism for the transfer of methamphetamine throughout a property. The inhalation exposure pathway has the potential to result in significant intake of methamphetamine, adding to dermal absorption and ingestion exposure routes. Guidelines that are established for the assessment of methamphetamine contaminated properties that ignore inhalation exposures can significantly underestimate exposure and result in guidelines that are not adequately protective of health. This study also demonstrates that sampling methamphetamine in air can be undertaken using commercially available sorption tubes and analytical methods.

Approach to Predicting the Size-Dependent Inhalation Intake of Particulate Novel Brominated Flame Retardants

“…With the development of science and technology, an increasing number of chemicals are introduced into our daily lives. Some of these chemicals, such as brominated flame retardants (BFRs), can escape from their sites of application into the atmosphere, where they pose risks to human health. , For this reason, a growing number of scientists have focused on the assessment of health risks posed by these chemicals in the atmosphere. − Gaseous and particulate BFRs in the atmosphere have been reported to be able to enter the human body via different pathways with different levels of flux. − Particulate BFRs are not uniformly distributed in the atmosphere on the basis of resolved airborne particle size − and can be deposited into different parts of the human respiratory system with different levels of flux, leading to a more complicated estimation of human exposure. − …”

Public health challenges facing Environmental Health Officers during COVID‐19: methamphetamine contamination of properties

“…However, the health problems are non‐specific and can be attributed to a range of other causes before contamination of a property is considered and investigated. Children are most at risk of increased exposure to methamphetamine and health impacts due to their body size, developmental stages, inhalation exposure and physical contact with surfaces 46,47 . In a recent case study of 63 individuals by Wright et al, 48 adults, adolescents and children experienced adverse health effects after being unknowingly exposed to methamphetamine through third‐hand use and manufacture of the drug.…”

Determination of Methamphetamine by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography in Odor-Adsorbent Material Used for Training Drug-Detection Animals

“…Illicitly manufactured and sold, methamphetamine is generally made in the form of hydrochloride, i.e., methamphetamine hydrochloride, in clear crystals, known as crystal methamphetamine (CM), which are of the highest purity and are therefore more potent [ 4 ]. Methamphetamine hydrochloride is not volatile, but methamphetamine is volatile, and due to its unstable chemical constitution, methamphetamine exists in air as a volatile free base [ 5 ]. Methamphetamine is manufactured in clandestine laboratories through a variety of methods (referred to as “cooking”) [ 6 ].…”

“…Overall, GC and LC are the most commonly used methods for the detection of methamphetamine [ 5 ]. Al-Dirbashi et al [ 31 ] used high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and Wright, Martyny, and Serrano and Van et al [ 5 , 32 , 33 , 34 ] used GC and LC techniques, respectively.…”

“…Overall, GC and LC are the most commonly used methods for the detection of methamphetamine [ 5 ]. Al-Dirbashi et al [ 31 ] used high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and Wright, Martyny, and Serrano and Van et al [ 5 , 32 , 33 , 34 ] used GC and LC techniques, respectively. Although GC is highly sensitive, qualitatively accurate, and widely used, LC has the advantages of less demanding sample preparation and independence from sample volatility and polarity as LC does not require derivatization to enhance volatility and is capable of characterizing and quantifying thermally unstable and polar compounds [ 35 ].…”