We have found that ecteinascidin-743 (ET-743) inhibited cell proliferation at 1-10 ng/ml, leading to S and G 2 /M arrest and subsequent apoptosis, and induced early apoptosis without previous cell cycle arrest at 10 -100 ng/ml in cancer cells. ET-743-mediated apoptosis, did not involve Fas/CD95. ET-743 induced c-Jun NH 2 -terminal kinase (JNK) and caspase-3 activation, and JNK and caspase inhibition prevented ET-743-induced apoptosis. ET-743 failed to promote apoptosis in caspase-3-deficient MCF-7 cells, further implicating caspase-3 in its proapoptotic action. Overexpression of bcl-2 by gene transfer abrogated ET-743-induced apoptosis, but cells underwent cell cycle arrest. ET-743 triggered cytochrome c release from mitochondria that was inhibited by Bcl-2 overexpression. Inhibition of transcription or protein synthesis did not prevent ET-743-induced apoptosis, but abrogated ET-743-induced cell cycle arrest. Microarray analyses revealed changes in the expression of a small number of cell cycle-related genes (p21, GADD45A, cyclin G2, MCM5, and histones) that suggested their putative involvement in ET-743-induced cell cycle arrest. These data indicate that ET-743 is a very potent anticancer drug showing dose-dependent cytostatic and proapoptotic effects through activation of two different signaling pathways, namely a transcriptiondependent pathway leading to cell cycle arrest and a transcription-independent route leading to rapid apoptosis that involves mitochondria, JNK, and caspase-3.
Ecteinascidin-743 (ET-743)1 is a marine-derived compound isolated from the marine tunicate Ecteinascidia turbinata (1, 2), with a potent cytotoxic activity against a variety of tumors in vitro and in vivo (3-5). The preclinical in vivo experiments with ET-743 showed cytotoxic activity of the drug when administered at g/m 2 dosages, yielding nanomolar plasma concentrations (6, 7). Current phase II clinical trials in Europe and the United States indicate that ET-743 represents a highly promising antitumor agent. However, the mechanism by which ET-743 exerts its anticancer activity remains to be elucidated. ET-743 has been reported to bind to the minor groove of DNA (8, 9), bending DNA toward the major groove (10). DNA-bound ET-743 appeared to modify the interaction between DNA and several transcription factors (11,12). Also, at high concentrations ET-743 and the related synthetic drug phthalascidin, have been reported to target topoisomerase I (13, 14). However, the relevance of these actions for the antitumor activity of ET-743 can be questioned as they are evidenced at drug concentrations much higher than those required for achieving its antitumor effect. On the other hand, ET-743-treated cells have been reported to accumulate in S and G 2 /M phases (15-18).To elucidate the mechanism underlying the anticancer effect of ET-743, we investigated the putative role of apoptosis in ET-743 action as an explanation for its cytotoxic effect. In this work we have found evidence for the induction of c-Jun NH 2 -terminal kinase (JNK)-, mitoch...