Cultural and socio-economic conditions as factors contributing to chronic stress in sub-Saharan African communities

Abstract

Stress is known to contribute to overall health status. Many individuals in sub-Saharan Africa are believed to be stressed about their employment, income, and health. This study aimed to investigate hair cortisol as a biomarker of chronic stress in settlement communities in Kenya. Hair samples were collected from 108 volunteers from settlement communities in Kenya. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay technique was used to measure hair cortisol concentrations. In parallel, a health survey was completed. The mean ± SD for the cortisol concentration in the hair of volunteers from the settlement communities in Naivasha was 639 ± 300 ng/g, which was higher than found for a Caucasian reference group (299 ± 110 ng/g; one-way ANOVA, P = 0.0003). There were no differences in hair cortisol concentrations between members of slum settlements adjacent to large floriculture farms in Naivasha (Karagita, Kamere/Kwa Muhia/DCK, and Kasarani) compared with those well-removed from all floriculture in Mogotio (Mogotio and Westlands/Katorongot). However, hair cortisol concentrations were significantly higher in females, divorced volunteers, those who made below minimum wage, and those who reported feeling unsafe collecting water or using sanitation facilities within these 2 settlement groups. We found no evidence for increased chronic stress (measured by hair cortisol content) between members of slum settlements adjacent to versus distant to large floriculture farms. Cultural and socio-economic conditions that prevail in much of sub-Saharan Africa were found to be factors contributing to chronic stress.

Associations between hair cortisol concentration, income, income dynamics and status incongruity in healthy middle-aged women

“…The results are in line with previous studies focusing on traditional cortisol specimens from saliva and blood that have reported lower income to be associated with disturbed cortisol regulation ( Cohen et al, 2006 , Dowd et al, 2009 ). It is also consistent with a relatively recent study showing that lower income as a measure of deprivation was related to higher hair cortisol levels in women from sub-Saharan African communities ( Henley et al, 2014 ). The present study adds to these findings by showing a clear dose-response relationship between income and hair cortisol.…”

“…The relationship between financial status (income) and hair cortisol is not well studied. The only study to date reported elevated hair cortisol in participants earning less than the minimum wage in different communities in sub-Saharan Africa ( Henley et al, 2014 ). Some mixed evidence also exists for the effect of parental income on children’s hair cortisol levels ( Bosma et al, 2015 ).…”

Chronic stress in the mother-infant dyad: Maternal hair cortisol, infant salivary cortisol and interactional synchrony

“…HCC increases in relation to objective psychosocial stressors such as unemployment (Dettenborn et al, 2010) and negative life events (Staufenbiel et al, 2014). For example, a recent study in Kenya reported higher HCC in those who made less than minimum wage and those who reported feeling physically unsafe when collecting water (Henley et al, 2014). …”

Sanitation, Stress, and Life Stage: A Systematic Data Collection Study among Women in Odisha, India

“…Though the literature focuses on water insecurity, sanitation access presents similar psychosocial risks, particularly for women and girls. In Kenya, Henley and colleagues studied hair cortisol concentrations as a biomarker for chronic stress, finding that concentrations were significantly higher in women who reported feeling unsafe while collecting water or accessing sanitation [ 4 ]. In a study of mental health in urban slums in Bangladesh, Gruebner, et al found that elements of the built environment including access to a better toilet facility were significantly associated with high quality of life scores (WHO-5 scores) [ 5 ].…”