Crowded prisons: A review of psychological and environmental effects.

Abstract

Crowded PrisonsA Review of Psychological and Environmental Effects 1 iNTRODUCTION In the past seven years, prison overcrowding has become commonplace in America. Projections give little hope for any substantial reversal of this trend, which is now taxing the physical and programmatic capabilities of our prisons (Johnson & Kravitz, 1978). During this same period a number of class action suits have been filed seeking relief from alleged oppressive and deteriorative prison conditions. These suits have focused on protection from violence, the right to basic care, and the right not to suffer psychological debilitation (see Bronstein & Hirschkop, 1979 for a comprehensive review of recent litigation). The negative impact of overcrowding has been an integral theme both in plaintiffs' arguments and in Court-ordered relief? Experts and courts seem to be agreeing that overcrowding brings out the worst in both individuals and systems. The present comment will explore several dimensions of crowding as it affects prisoner adjustment.Few individuals are suggesting that our prisons are adequate--but for overcrowding. Nor are Courts prescribing relief solely on the assumption that other issues will disappear if we simply stay within "design capacity." However, there is a certain lure to the idea of (for example) 60-75 square feet per prisoner. Far-ranging minimal standards have been developed by groups such as the American Correctional Association (1977) and the American Public Health Association (1976) regarding a host of housing, health, managerial, and program factors, but numbers and space requirements 1Based in part on testimony given by the author at a hearing regarding overcrowded conditions at the New Mexico State Penitentiary. Prisoners had filed a class action suit, Duran v. Apodaco, in United States District Court alleging conditions which violated the Eighth Amendment's prohibition against cruel and unusual punishment. Following the preliminary hearing held in October, 1978, the court declined to grant an injunction to reduce conditions of severe overcrowding. In February, 1980, a riot of unprecedented proportions in modern prison history took place at the New Mexico Penitentiary. This comment was written eight months prior to that event. The author is indebted to Professors Larry Yackle and Ronald Rogers, who commented on earlier versions of this paper.

AIDS and Offender Classification: Implications for Management of HIV-Positive Prisoners

“…Much like findings from overcrowded prisons (Clements, 1979), the idleness associated with isolation, restriction, and lack of access provides a breeding ground for anger and aggression as well as symptoms of depression. Especially when the idleness serves no rational correctional purpose, otherwise healthy inmates may be expected to deteriorate and be unproductive with both their physical and mental energy.…”

“…Profile elements that document needs in mental health, education, vocational/job training, substance abuse, victimization potential, and other prison survival factors remain relevant as a correctional management tool (Clements, 1986). Court guidelines and professional standards have not, and in most cases should not, provide an exception clause or alternative classification status, e.g., &dquo;HIV positive inmate; ordinary criteria do not apply.&dquo; Such practice may also create unintended long-term effects on access to parole or community release alternatives.…”

“…For example, offender classification models and techniques have shed light on how future space and resources ought to be planned and allocated (Austin, 1986;Levinson, 1982). Offender profiles provide guidance for management, supervisory, and program distributions so as to maximize the use of scarce prison resources (Clements, 1985a).…”

The Future of Offender Classification

“…We would also note the relationship of classification to overcrowding (Clements, 1979;unpublished). When prisons are overcrowded, misclassification and overclassification errors tend to increase.…”

A Study of Coping Skills and Psychiatric Morbidity among Prisoners

“…High rate of suicide was also reported among the prisoners. [16][17][18] Individuals with antisocial personality problems have an increased chance of conflict with the criminal justice system. Substance abuse, on several occasions leads to increased risk of violent behavior.…”