“…Assessments of paternal and maternal involvement in families with different social‐organizational patterns (i.e., kinship systems, multiple caregiving/communal care), with strong cultural norms and beliefs (e.g., Dharma and Karma in Hinduism, Islamic beliefs, familism in Hispanic families, filial piety in Chinese culture, Rukhun and Hormat in Javenese culture in Indonesia) (see Kakar, 1992; Keats, 2000; Stevenson, Chen, & Lee, 1992), and from diverse socioeconomic statuses seem to support the notion that mothers are the primary caregivers to young children and that they show disproportionate levels and amounts of time investment in the more demanding aspects of caregiving and social interactions with young children than do fathers (see volume by Lamb, 2004). For instance, with respect to levels of involvement, mothers exceeded fathers in primary care in Jamaican (Roopnarine et al 1995), Guyanese (Wilson, 1989), Efe (Tronick, Moreli, & Winn, 1987), Native American (Hossain, Chew, Swilling, Brown, Michaels, & Philips, 1999), European American (see Pleck & Masciadrelli, 2004), African American (see Roopnarine, 2004), Hispanic American (see Cabrera & Garcia Coll, 2004), and different groups of Asian families (Lee, 2002; Roopnarine & Suppal, 2000; Shwalb, Nakawaza, Yamamoto, & Hyun, 2004).…”