Critical review on the stability of illicit drugs in sewers and wastewater samples

Zheng

et al. 2016

Environ Sci Pollut Res

Illicit drugs and their metabolites have recently been recognized as an emerging group of contaminants due to their potential ecotoxicological impact in aquatic ecosystems. To date, information on the occurrence of these compounds in the aquatic environment of China remains limited. In this study, we collected surface water samples from 36 rivers in north China that discharge into the Bohai Sea and north Yellow Sea and measured the concentrations of amphetamine-like compounds, ketamines, cocainics, and opioids. The occurrence and spatial patterns of these substances show significant differences between the rivers and regions. Two designer drugs, methamphetamine (METH) and ketamine (KET), were the most abundant compounds detected in the entire set of samples (detection frequency of 92 and 69 %). The concentrations of METH and KET ranged from <0.1 to 42.0 ng L −1 (mean = 4.53 ng L −1 ) and <0.05 to 4.50 ng L −1 (mean = 0.49 ng L −1 ), respectively. The high detection frequencies of METH and KET are consistent with the fact that they are the main illicit drugs consumed in China. The high concentrations of these illicit drugs and their metabolites were found in areas that have a high population density. The riverine input of total illicit drugs into the Bohai Sea and north Yellow Sea was estimated to be in the range of 684 to 1160 kg per year.

Section: Concentrations In Surface River Watermentioning

confidence: 99%

“…It is noteworthy that drugs can also be degraded though a variety of processes, e.g., photolysis and biodegradation that occur during treatment and/or in the environment. However, METH and KET are stable under direct photolysis (Lin et al 2013) and biodegradation (McCall et al 2016).…”

Section: Concentrations In Surface River Watermentioning

confidence: 99%

Illicit drugs and their metabolites in 36 rivers that drain into the Bohai Sea and north Yellow Sea, north China

Zheng

et al. 2016

Environ Sci Pollut Res

“…Since then, WBE for estimating illicit drug consumption has been applied in multiple cities in Australia (Lai et al 2015, Lai et al 2013a, Lai et al 2013b, Lai et al 2016a, Lai et al 2016b, Lai et al 2016c, Lai et al 2011, Lai et al 2013c, Canada (Metcalfe et al 2010) chemicals. This will encapsulate the short term goals of determining which chemicals and chemical groups we can measure as well as detecting per capita regional differences, which can then be applied to the long term goal of monitoring per capita exposure changes.…”

Section: Up(de Jure)mentioning

confidence: 99%

“…sorption and uptake by organisms. The second is the alteration of the structure of the chemicals themselves such as via metabolism, reduction or oxidation of the chemicals (McCall et al 2015).…”

Section: Uncertainty Associated With Chemical Loss In the Wastewater mentioning

confidence: 99%

“…We would also like to thank Dr Kristell wastewater samples, a study was performed to assess the feasibility of determining de facto population size and the effect on estimating the population normalised drug consumption (PNDC) for a large community over an extended period. By analysing 311 daily composite wastewater influent samples for the chemicals outlined in Chapter 3 and determining the de facto population size using the model, it was found that for the given community, the de facto population was on average 32% higher than the de jure population and as a result any PNDC using only the de jure population would lead to a 22% systematic overestimation (Lai et al 2015). Using the model, the uncertainty of the PNDC could be reduced by a factor of two hence demonstrating the importance of using such a model for future WBE studies.…”

Section: Acknowledgementsmentioning

confidence: 99%

See 1 more Smart Citation

Refining the uncertainties and expansion of wastewater-based epidemiology for assessing population exposure to chemicals

O’Brien¹

Systematic sampling and analysis of wastewater is an increasingly used tool to complement more traditional techniques for assessing consumption of licit and illicit chemical substances in the population. The use of wastewater sampling and analysis contributes to a broader field that is referred to as wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). Both spatial and temporal analysis can be conducted quantitatively, quickly and cost effectively using the WBE approach.In brief, per capita exposure to a given chemical within a population is estimated by measuring the concentration of that chemical or a metabolite in a representative wastewater sample multiplied by the volume of wastewater represented by the sample, divided by the population size from which the sample originates and correcting by factors such as the excretion factor of the metabolite or chemical, molecular weight change and potential stability of the chemical within the sewer. It has previously been determined that the population size is the largest uncertainty for WBE estimates.The aim of this thesis it to therefore identify useful markers that allow population estimation for a given wastewater sample and apply this technique including to assess per capita exposure/release of a group of chemicals that have not been examined in previous WBE studies.The approach for this thesis was to systematically collect samples on a day when the population is well defined. For this we collected samples on the 2011 Census Day in Australia from 10 wastewater catchments ranging in size from approximately 1,500 to 500,000 people. By providing catchment maps to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, the accurate population size for each catchment was determined.The most obvious choice of a potentially useful population markers are endogenous chemicals such as creatinine. Therefore, in Chapter 2, creatinine was assessed as a population marker. It was found that there was no correlation between the mass load of creatinine in wastewater and the population. Using laboratory-scale sewer reactors with conditions representative of both gravity sewers and rising mains, it was found that creatinine, while stable in collected samples, is unstable under sewer conditions. We therefore conclude that creatinine is not suitable for predicting differences in population size particularly when different sewer systems are compared. 2In Chapter 3, a method was developed to quantify 96 chemicals in wastewater influent and applied to the census wastewater samples to identify potential population size markers. Thirteen chemicals including acesulfame, caffeine, and pharmaceuticals and personal care products were detected in all samples and found to have a good correlation (R 2 > 0.8) between mass load and population size. A Bayesian inference model was developed which incorporated these potential population size markers to provide a population size estimate. The model was validated using a leave-one-out approach for all sites and comparing the population size estimate from the model with the accur...

Drug Testing and Analysis

Screening for illicit drugs in pooled human urine and urinated soil samples and studies on the stability of urinary excretion products of cocaine, MDMA, and MDEA in wastewater by hyphenated mass spectrometry techniques

Mardal

Kinyua

Ramin

et al. 2016

Self Cite

Monitoring population drug use through wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is a useful method to quantitatively follow trends and estimate total drug consumption in communities. Concentrations of drug biomarkers might be low in wastewater due to dilution; and therefore analysis of pooled urine (PU) is useful to detect consumed drugs and identify targets of illicit drugs use. The aims of the study were (1) to screen PU and urinated soil (US) samples collected at festivals for illicit drug excretion products using hyphenated techniques; (2) to develop and validate a hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography - mass spectrometry / mass spectrometry (HILIC-MS/MS) method of quantifying urinary targets of identified drugs in wastewater; and (3) to conduct a 24 h stability study, using PU and US to better reflect the chemical environment for targets in wastewater. Cocaine (COC) and ecstasy-like compounds were the most frequently detected illicit drugs; an analytical method was developed to quantify their excretion products. Hydroxymethoxymethamphetamine (HMMA), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), HMMA sulfate (HMMA-S), benzoylecgonine (BE), and cocaethylene (CE) had 85-102% of initial concentration after 8 h of incubation, whereas COC and ecgonine methyl ester (EME) had 74 and 67% after 8 h, respectively. HMMA showed a net increase during 24 h of incubation (107% ± 27, n = 8), possibly due to the cleavage of HMMA conjugates, and biotransformation of MDMA. The results suggest HMMA as analytical target for MDMA consumption in WBE, due to its stability in wastewater and its excretion as the main phase I metabolite of MDMA. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.