Critical review of the state of the art in multi-material fabrication via directed energy deposition

Feenstra, D.R.; Banerjee, R.; Fraser, Hamish L.; Huang, Aijun; Molotnikov, Andrey; Birbilis, Nick

doi:10.1016/j.cossms.2021.100924

Cited by 90 publications

(41 citation statements)

References 108 publications

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“…DED involves injecting a stream of metallic powder that is melted by a laser beam as a heat source in order to deposit material layer-by-layer on a built platform [6]. In DED process, solidification and solid-state transformations, upon heating and cooling, deeply affect the mechanical properties of deposited layer induced by the high-energy input and high cooling rate during the process [7]. The control of the involved physical phenomena like melting, phase changing, vaporization, and Marangoni convection is extremely difficult and sometimes impossible exclusively by means of experimental analyses [8].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Thermal study of a cladding layer of Inconel 625 in Directed Energy Deposition (DED) process using a phase-field model

Darabi

Ferreira

Azinpour

et al. 2022

Int J Adv Manuf Technol

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In an effort to simulate the involved thermal physical effects that occur in direct energy deposition (DED) a thermodynamically-consistent of phase-field method is developed. Two state parameters, characterizing phase change and consolidation, are used to allocate the proper material properties to each phase. The numerical transient solution is obtained via a finite element analysis. A set of experiments for single tracks scanning were carried out to provide dimensional data of the deposited cladding lines. By relying on a regression analytical formulation to establish the link between process parameters and geometries of deposited layers from experiments, an activation of passive elements in the finite element discretization is considered. The single-track cladding of Inconel 625 powder on tempered steel 42CrMo4 was printed with different power, scanning speed and feed-rate to assess their effect on the morphology of the melt pool and the solidification cooling rate. The predicted dimensions of melt pools were compared with experiments reported in the literature. In addition, this research correlated the used process parameter in the modelling of localized transient thermal with solidification parameters, namely, the thermal gradient (𝐺) and the solidification rate (𝑅).

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Thermal study of a cladding layer of Inconel 625 in Directed Energy Deposition (DED) process using a phase-field model

Darabi

Ferreira

Azinpour

et al. 2022

Int J Adv Manuf Technol

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“…The DED can be used for the repair and remanufacture of the components during their lifetime, as discussed by Saboori et al [1,2]. In a critical review, Feenstra et al focused on the possibility of deposition of multimaterial builds, which is a unique advantage of DED systems [3]. They pointed to the problems that can occur during the process, such as the formation of intermetallic phases, cracking and delamination as well as difficulties related to process control.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…They pointed to the problems that can occur during the process, such as the formation of intermetallic phases, cracking and delamination as well as difficulties related to process control. Therefore, the development of advanced numerical simulation tools and a broad-material database is necessary for better understanding of the DED deposition parameters' effect on the material properties and microstructure [3]. The authors also mentioned that DED systems have a disadvantage of lower powder efficiency (approximately 30%) in comparison to other powder-processing technologies such as PBF, where efficiency can reach even 90% [4].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Prediction of Behaviour of Thin-Walled DED-Processed Structure: Experimental-Numerical Approach

et al. 2022

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Additive manufacturing (AM) becomes a more and more standard process in different fields of industry. There is still only limited knowledge of the relationship between measured material data and the overall behaviour of directed energy deposition (DED)-processed complex structures. The understanding of the structural performance, including flow curves and local damage properties of additively manufactured parts by DED, becomes increasingly important. DED can be used for creating functional surfaces, component repairing using multiple powder feeders, and creating a heterogeneous structure with defined chemical composition. For thin parts that are used with the as-deposited surface, this evaluation is even highly crucial. The main goal of the study was to predict the behaviour of thin-walled structures manufactured by the DED process under static loading by finite element analysis (FEA). Moreover, in this study, the mechanical performance of partly machined and fully machined miniaturized samples produced from the structure was compared. The structure studied in this research resembles a honeycomb shape made of austenitic stainless steel AISI 316L, which is characterized by high strength and ductility. The uncoupled damage models based on a hybrid experimental-numerical approach were used. The microstructure and hardness were examined to comprehend the structural behaviour.

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“…So far, DED has been used in various applications including metal joining and part repairing [ 2 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. Also, since the AM process has a high degree of freedom for the spatial distribution of both geometry and material compositions, it can be much more flexible in developing more novel alloy structures [ 9 , 10 ]. Typical works using DED to join similar or dissimilar alloys include steels, Ti alloys, Ni-based superalloys, and Cu alloys.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

TiNi-Based Bi-Metallic Shape-Memory Alloy by Laser-Directed Energy Deposition

et al. 2022

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In this study, laser-directed energy deposition was applied to build a Ti-rich ternary Ti–Ni–Cu shape-memory alloy onto a TiNi shape-memory alloy substrate to realize the joining of the multifunctional bi-metallic shape-memory alloy structure. The cost-effective Ti, Ni, and Cu elemental powder blend was used for raw materials. Various material characterization approaches were applied to reveal different material properties in two sections. The as-fabricated Ti–Ni–Cu alloy microstructure has the TiNi phase as the matrix with Ti2Ni secondary precipitates. The hardness shows no high values indicating that the major phase is not hard intermetallics. A bonding strength of 569.1 MPa was obtained by tensile testing, and digital image correlation reveals the different tensile responses of the two sections. Differential scanning calorimetry was used to measure the phase-transformation temperatures. The austenite finishing temperature of higher than 80 °C was measured for the Ti–Ni–Cu alloy section. For the TiNi substrate, the austenite finishing temperature was tested to be near 47 °C at the bottom and around 22 °C at the upper substrate region, which is due to the repeated laser scanning that acts as annealing on the substrate. Finally, the multiple shape-memory effect of two shape-memory alloy sides was tested and identified.

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Critical review of the state of the art in multi-material fabrication via directed energy deposition

Cited by 90 publications

References 108 publications

Thermal study of a cladding layer of Inconel 625 in Directed Energy Deposition (DED) process using a phase-field model

Thermal study of a cladding layer of Inconel 625 in Directed Energy Deposition (DED) process using a phase-field model

Prediction of Behaviour of Thin-Walled DED-Processed Structure: Experimental-Numerical Approach

TiNi-Based Bi-Metallic Shape-Memory Alloy by Laser-Directed Energy Deposition

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