Critical periods and the effects of early shock on later emotional behavior in the white rat.

Lindholm, Byron W.

doi:10.1037/h0045025

Cited by 24 publications

(11 citation statements)

References 3 publications

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“…These 5s consumed significantly more water in adulthood than nondisturbed controls; the findings were replicated in a second experiment (Levine, 1957(Levine, , 1958. A similar finding was obtained by Lindholm (1962) who shocked rats for the first 10 days, the second 10 days, the first 20 days of life, and did not disturb a control group. No specified shock level was used; instead, the shock was set high enough to make the 5*s move and squeal in the apparatus.…”

Section: Electric Shock and Emotional Reactivitysupporting

confidence: 74%

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Critical periods, stimulus input, and emotional reactivity: A theory of infantile stimulation.

Denenberg

1964

Psychological Review

421

187

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Experiments, using rats and mice, do not support the critical period hypothesis that there are certain limited time periods in infancy during which a particular class of stimuli will have profound effects upon subsequent behavior. Where findings are consistent with the hypothesis, further research has shown that the "critical period" is a complex function of amount of infantile stimulation. The central hypothesis of this paper is that amount of stimulus input in infancy acts to reduce emotional reactivity in a monotonic fashion. From this it follows that an inverted U function should be obtained between amount of infantile stimulation and adult performance for tasks involving some form of noxious element and which are of "moderate" difficulty. For tasks which are "easy" or "difficult," the relationships between performance in adulthood and infantile stimulation should be monotonic, though opposite in slope. Data supporting this theory are discussed. This paper has two purposes. The this hypothesized change in emotional first is to question certain aspects of reactivity offers a useful mechanism the critical period hypothesis (Scott, by which one can explain a number 1958, 1962). The second, and more of disparate and seemingly unrelated important, purpose is to develop a changes in adult performance, somewhat different hypothesis: thatThe data to be considered, and the stimulation in infancy reduces the generalizations therefrom, come speorganism's emotional reactivity; this cifically from research with rats and reduction is a monotonic function of mice which have received various forms amount of stimulus input. In turn, of stimulation between birth and weaning.

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Section: Electric Shock and Emotional Reactivitysupporting

confidence: 74%

“…Research to date indicates that, for the rat and mouse at least, there may be as many "critical periods" as there are combinations of independent variable parameters and dependent variable measures (Denenberg, 1962a). Meyers (1962) and Lindholm (1962) have recently arrived at a similar conclusion.…”

mentioning

confidence: 62%

Critical periods, stimulus input, and emotional reactivity: A theory of infantile stimulation.

Denenberg

1964

Psychological Review

421

187

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“…Interestingly, the sites which presented an altered functioning in adult animals were different, at least in part, from those involved in odor memory formation in infant learning (see Table 1; Sullivan and Wilson 1995;Roth and Sullivan 2005;Moriceau et al 2006). The present work complements earlier data on compromised adult learning and emotionality derived from other early life experience paradigms, such as painful shock or separation from the mother (Levine 1957(Levine , 1962Denenberg and Bell 1960;Bell and Denenberg 1962;Lindholm 1962;Denenberg 1963;Henderson 1965;Coplan et al 1996;Caldji et al 1998Caldji et al , 2000Pryce and Feldon 2003;Seckl and Meaney 2004;Card et al 2005;Kosten et al 2005Kosten et al , 2006. Here, we present data suggesting that mechanisms associated with the enduring effects of early life experience are greatly dependent upon the contingent presentation of odor and shock (i.e., not found in unpaired infant experience groups), and the resulting effects are not limited to brain areas, showing learning-induced plasticity in infancy (see Table 1).…”

Section: Functional Interpretationsupporting

confidence: 70%

Neonatal odor-shock conditioning alters the neural network involved in odor fear learning at adulthood

Sevelinges¹,

Sullivan²,

Messaoudi³

et al. 2008

Learn. Mem.

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Adult learning and memory functions are strongly dependent on neonatal experiences. We recently showed that neonatal odor-shock learning attenuates later life odor fear conditioning and amygdala activity. In the present work we investigated whether changes observed in adults can also be observed in other structures normally involved, namely olfactory cortical areas. For this, pups were trained daily from postnatal (PN) 8 to 12 in an odor-shock paradigm, and retrained at adulthood in the same task. 14 C 2-DG autoradiographic brain mapping was used to measure training-related activation in amygdala cortical nucleus (CoA), anterior (aPCx), and posterior (pPCx) piriform cortex. In addition, field potentials induced in the three sites in response to paired-pulse stimulation of the olfactory bulb were recorded in order to assess short-term inhibition and facilitation in these structures. Attenuated adult fear learning was accompanied by a deficit in 2-DG activation in CoA and pPCx. Moreover, electrophysiological recordings revealed that, in these sites, the level of inhibition was lower than in control animals. These data indicate that early life odor-shock learning produces changes throughout structures of the adult learning circuit that are independent, at least in part, from those involved in infant learning. Moreover, these enduring effects were influenced by the contingency of the infant experience since paired odor-shock produced greater disruption of adult learning and its supporting neural pathway than unpaired presentations. These results suggest that some enduring effects of early life experience are potentiated by contingency and extend beyond brain areas involved in infant learning.

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“…It is concluded that early withdrawal of social stimulation generated a strong aversive reaction and that it was the strength and timing of this reaction that mediated the emotionality moderating effects found here. Under these circumstances, the primary function of early social stimulation was to establish a condition whereby the aversive reaction generated by separation would occur early.A number of studies have revealed that animals stimulated by stressful electrical shock in infancy exhibit reduced emotional behavior when they are tested at a later age in an open field or other fearprovoking situation (Denenberg, Carlson, & Stephen, 1962;Lindholm, 1962). In these studies, the subjects were rats or mice, but similar early stimulation effects have recently been obtained in ducklings (Ratner, in press).…”

mentioning

confidence: 98%

“…A number of studies have revealed that animals stimulated by stressful electrical shock in infancy exhibit reduced emotional behavior when they are tested at a later age in an open field or other fearprovoking situation (Denenberg, Carlson, & Stephen, 1962;Lindholm, 1962). In these studies, the subjects were rats or mice, but similar early stimulation effects have recently been obtained in ducklings (Ratner, in press).…”

mentioning

confidence: 98%

Some effects of early social stimulation on the emotional reactivity of ducklings

Klein

Hoffman

DePaulo

1976

Animal Learning & Behavior

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Newly hatched Khaki Campbell ducklings were housed with a con specific for 24 h beginning at either 1 or 5 days of age. A third group of ducklings received no social stimulation. When tested on Day 7, ducklings afforded early social stimulation exhibited less distress calling and crouching in a novel open field than ducklings exposed to late or no social stimulation. A second experiment asked whether the above result was due to early social stimulation per se or to the separation which occurred at its termination. Newly hatched ducklings were housed with a conspecific beginning on Day 1. One-half of the birds were separated from their companions on Day 2; the rest were separated on Day 6. On Day 7, the ducklings that were separated early exhibited less crouching and distress calling in a novel open field than the birds that were separated late. This finding implies that the withdrawal of social stimulation, rather than social stimulation per se, was responsible for the reduced emotional behavior observed in Experiment I. It is concluded that early withdrawal of social stimulation generated a strong aversive reaction and that it was the strength and timing of this reaction that mediated the emotionality moderating effects found here. Under these circumstances, the primary function of early social stimulation was to establish a condition whereby the aversive reaction generated by separation would occur early.A number of studies have revealed that animals stimulated by stressful electrical shock in infancy exhibit reduced emotional behavior when they are tested at a later age in an open field or other fearprovoking situation (Denenberg, Carlson, & Stephen, 1962;Lindholm, 1962). In these studies, the subjects were rats or mice, but similar early stimulation effects have recently been obtained in ducklings (Ratner, in press). Ratner found that when ducklings were shocked soon after hatching they showed less distress calling and crouching in a subsequent openfield test than ducklings that were either shocked at a later age or were never shocked.The research reported here was designed to elaborate on Ratner's work by asking whether the emotionality moderating effects of early stimulation in ducklings were limited to forms of stimulation that, like electrical shock, are clearly aversive. In particular, the work asked whether or not the social stimulation provided by early exposure to a conspecific might not also engender reduced emotional behavior when subjects were subsequently tested in an open field. That the stimulation provided by a conspecific is not aversive to the very young duckling seems clear from the finding that they immediately approach and stay near a conspecific when first

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Critical periods and the effects of early shock on later emotional behavior in the white rat.

Cited by 24 publications

References 3 publications

Critical periods, stimulus input, and emotional reactivity: A theory of infantile stimulation.

Critical periods, stimulus input, and emotional reactivity: A theory of infantile stimulation.

Neonatal odor-shock conditioning alters the neural network involved in odor fear learning at adulthood

Some effects of early social stimulation on the emotional reactivity of ducklings

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