Critical Minerals and Energy–Impacts and Limitations of Moving to Unconventional Resources

McLellan, Benjamin; Yamasue, Eiji; Tezuka, T.; Corder, Glen; Golev, Artem; Giurco, Damien

doi:10.3390/resources5020019

Cited by 29 publications

(13 citation statements)

References 53 publications

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“…The question is, however, where should these metals come from? Economic models show that recycling alone is not a viable solution, and that, even in 2050, a substantial part of our economy will depend on primary metal resources 126,127 . Recycling could become an important part of the answer by 2100, but a much greater focus on education and technology in this arena must take place.…”

Section: Future Perspectives and Conclusionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Deep-ocean polymetallic nodules as a resource for critical materials

Hein

Koschinsky

Kühn

2020

Nat Rev Earth Environ

197

127

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Deep-ocean polymetallic nodules (also known as manganese nodules) are composed of iron and manganese oxides that accrete around a nucleus on the vast abyssal plains of the global ocean 1-6. Polymetallic nodules vary in diameter from less than one to tens of centi metres and acquire economically interesting quantities of critical metals (metals that are essential to the security and economic wellbeing of a nation) from ocean water and/or sediment pore waters. As a result, the enormous quantities of these nodules-which are conservatively estimated to total 21 billion dry tons in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone 7,8 (CCZ; located in the northeast equatorial Pacific Ocean) alone (Fig. 1)-host considerable tonnages of critical metals that are essential for green energy, vehicles and infrastructure, as well as for new technology and military applications. This reservoir of critical metals has, therefore, triggered interest in new deep-ocean mining operations. However, the potential environmental impacts of such activities are of great concern and have hastened extensive research and evaluation in this area 9-11. Polymetallic nodules were first discovered on the seabed at a depth of approximately 4,300-5,500 m during the 1872-1876 voyage of the HMS Challenger to study the deep ocean 12. A number of nodules, which contained numerous shark teeth and cetacean ear bones, were collected from the western end of the CCZ nodule field 12. Early hypotheses suggested that polymetallic nodules form by alteration of volcanic rocks and grains, especially glass, which are transformed into manganese carbonates and, finally, into oxides that are deposited from solution to form nodules on water-rich sediments 12-14. However, later work-aided in part by the 1957-1958 International Geophysical Year-revealed the general source of the metals (seawater and sediment pore water) and the sorption processes that might be involved in the acquisition of minor metals by nodules 15-20. Economic interest in the deep-ocean polymetallic nodules developed in the 1960s 15,16 , which subsequently led to the formation of consortia in Germany,

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Section: Future Perspectives and Conclusionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Deep-ocean polymetallic nodules as a resource for critical materials

Hein

Koschinsky

Kühn

2020

Nat Rev Earth Environ

197

127

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“…Most commonly these have been related to thin film type solar panels [5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14], permanent magnets used in wind power generation and next-generation vehicles [15][16][17][18][19][20][21] and secondary batteries or fuel cells for next-generation vehicles [22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35]. However, most of these studies focus on specific technologies or metals and few studies have comprehensively analyzed the possibility of resource constraints in the introduction process of low carbon energy technology for multiple technologies and metals [36,37]. Therefore, these studies only discussed the resource constraints potential of specific metals or technologies, no mention has been made as to which metal/technology is more "critical".…”

Section: Related Workmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…On the other hand, ref. [36] considered demand for clean energy only, using a material intensity model and extrapolated different growth rates of energy demand and the clean energy sub-sectors from recent historical trends. In Reference [37], a material intensity approach was used but overall demand was extracted using a macroeconomic systems model.…”

Section: Comparison With Previous Studiesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Analysis of Potential for Critical Metal Resource Constraints in the International Energy Agency’s Long-Term Low-Carbon Energy Scenarios

et al. 2018

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As environmental problems associated with energy systems become more serious, it is necessary to address them with consideration of their interconnections-for example, the energy-mineral nexus. Specifically, it is unclear whether long-term energy scenarios assuming the expansion of low carbon energy technology are sustainable in terms of resource constraints. However, there are few studies that comprehensively analyze the possibility of resource constraints in the process of introducing low carbon energy technology from a long-term perspective. Hence, to provide guidelines for technological development and policy-making toward realizing the low carbon society, this paper undertakes the following: (1) Estimation of the impact of the expansion of low carbon energy technology on future metal demand based, on the International Energy Agency (IEA)'s scenarios; (2) estimation of the potential effects of low carbon energy technology recycling on the future supply-demand balance; (3) identification of critical metals that require priority measures. Results indicated that the introduction of solar power and next-generation vehicles may be hindered by resource depletion. Among the metals examined, indium, tellurium, silver, lithium, nickel and platinum were identified as critical metals that require specific measures. As recycling can reduce primary demand by 20%~70% for low carbon energy technology, countermeasures including recycling need to be considered.

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“…Although new reserves are being explored, by-product utilization processes are intensified [19,21] and secondary sources of critical metals are increasingly applied [24,52], it does not negate the need for re-thinking how the future infrastructure is built. Therefore, material recovery consideration should be fully embedded in design practices in order to reduce material losses and support the development of recovery possibilities at the EOL stage [50].…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…They argue that, although there is still some improvement potential in the production phase, the greatest efforts should be required in increasing end-of-life (EOL) recycling in order to meet increasing indium demand in the future [19]. On the other hand, the prospect for indium supply from mine wastes has been found to be substantial [24]; therefore, the priority for indium-rich countries should be on better recovery at the mining stage [52]. For instance, notwithstanding of Australia's large indium-containing zinc reserves, indium refinery capacity in Australia is currently very limited and limits the exploitation potential [21].…”

Section: High Dissipative Lossesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Drivers and Constraints of Critical Materials Recycling: The Case of Indium

Ylä-Mella

Pongrácz

2016

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Abstract:Raw material criticality studies are receiving increasing attention because an increasing number of elements of great economic importance, performing essential functions face high supply risks. Scarcity of key materials is a potential barrier to large-scale deployment of sustainable energy and clean-tech technologies as resorting to several critical materials. As physical scarcity and geopolitical issues may present a barrier to the supply of critical metals, recycling is regarded as a possible solution to substitute primary resources for securing the long-term supply of critical metals. In this paper, the main drivers and constraints for critical materials recycling are analyzed from literature, considering indium as a case study of critical materials. This literature review shows that waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) could be a future source of critical metals; however, the reduction of dissipation of critical materials should have much higher priority. It is put forward that more attention should be paid to sustainable management of critical materials, especially improved practices at the waste management stage. This calls for not only more efficient WEEE recycling technologies, but also revising priorities in recycling strategies.

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Critical Minerals and Energy–Impacts and Limitations of Moving to Unconventional Resources

Cited by 29 publications

References 53 publications

Deep-ocean polymetallic nodules as a resource for critical materials

Deep-ocean polymetallic nodules as a resource for critical materials

Analysis of Potential for Critical Metal Resource Constraints in the International Energy Agency’s Long-Term Low-Carbon Energy Scenarios

Drivers and Constraints of Critical Materials Recycling: The Case of Indium

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