“…Several studies have found four latent classes including: a low-rate, moderate-rate, high-rate adolescence-peak, and high-rate adult-peak (Ward et al, 2010), early starters, adult-onset offenders, no prior criminal history, and persistent offenders (van Koppen, de Poot, Kleeman, & Nieuwbeerta, 2010), rare, low chronic, low-rising, and high chronic (Colman, Kim, Mitchell-Herzfeld, & Shady, 2009), as well as nonoffenders, late-onset, adolescence-limited, and persistent (Farrington, Ttofi, & Coid, 2009). Other research reported five latent groups: gradual declining, moderate declining, low, late increasing, gradual increase, late declining, and low offending/low use (Sullivan & Hamilton, 2007); low, moderate, childhood limited, adolescent onset, and early onset/ persistent (Roisman et al, 2010); and in a major criminal careers initiative of the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention and the MacArthur Foundation, persistent, three levels of desisting groups, and a very-low/non-offending group (Mulvey et al, 2010;Mulvey, 2011).…”