Crime and punishment: An examination of school context and student characteristics that predict out-of-school suspension

Disproportionality Reduction in Exclusionary School Discipline: A Best-Evidence Synthesis

“…The five included studies indicated that (a) the efficacy of SWPBIS alone in reducing disparities was either inconsistent or ineffective and (b) the program may have benefited White, female students more so than other demographic groups. Only two studies provided direct interaction terms (Bradshaw et al, 2012;Cruz & Rodl, 2018), and findings suggested continued or worsening inequities for males, students with disabilities, African American, Latinx, and American Indian/Alaska Native students over the course of program implementation.…”

“…B. G. Cook and Odom (2013) argued that "implementation is the critical link between research and practice" (p. 138), and if schools struggle to implement with fidelity, program efficacy matters little. It is no surprise that researchers who took a treatment-to-fidelity approach-eliminating schools that tried a program but did not achieve fidelity (i.e., Gage et al, 2019)-demonstrated higher levels of efficacy than researchers who took an intent-to-treat approach and kept schools in the sample regardless of fidelity (i.e., Cruz & Rodl, 2018). It is well established that implementation fidelity is critical (Fixsen et al, 2013;Kim et al, 2018), and our results further demonstrate that schools may struggle to implement particular interventions without robust researcher support (e.g., C. R. Cook et al, 2018) or external grant funding (e.g., Mansfield et al, 2018).…”

“…Examining the experiences of students who exist at these intersections is critical in understanding the complex phenomena that underlie disparate practices (Crenshaw, 1991). For example, African American students with disabilities are suspended at higher rates than White students with disabilities (Losen, 2018;Losen & Gillespie, 2012), and African American males with disabilities are suspended at rates double those of White males with disabilities and triple those of White females without disabilities (Cruz & Rodl, 2018;Morris & Perry, 2017;Wallace et al, 2008), indicating the interplay among racism, ableism, and gender issues in school discipline systems (Annamma et al, 2018;Blake et al, 2017).…”

“…, yielded mixed results Bradshaw et al (2012). examined SWPBIS and found increased ODRs and suspensions by treatment for males and reduced ODRs but increased suspensions by treatment for students with disabilities, whereasCruz and Rodl (2018) examined SWPBIS and found increased suspensions by treatment for African American and Latinx students Anyon et al (2016). examined restorative justice and found increased ODRs but reduced suspensions for African American students in treatment conditions.…”

The price of punishment: Days missed due to suspension in U.S. K‐12 public schools

“…For example, in the present data, 20% of the schools in the national data set accounted for more than 80% of the total number of days missed due to suspension. Thus, there is a need for more research at the district and school level as these may account for more of the variance than do the behavioral or individual characteristics of students (Cruz & Rodl, 2018; Gopalan & Nelson, 2019; Skiba et al, 2014).…”