Cr (III) genotoxicity and oxidative stress: An occupational health risk for leather tannery workers of South Asian developing countries

Abstract

In the leather industry, Cr (III) is used as a basic tanning agent. The wastewater discharged from the tannery industry contains a high concentration of chromium. Recent studies indicate the genotoxic effects especially DNA damage and oxidative stress of Cr (III) in tannery workers. Cr (III) interacts with DNA to form DNA cross-links and DNA strand breaks. It also modifies the oxidative DNA base through the Haber–Weiss reaction. The present study is based on an overview of scientific literature and previous observations regarding the effects of tannery chromium effluents on exposed workers and the population in the vicinity. This study strongly suggests for use of a non-toxic substitute of chromium to be used for the tanning process and placement of tannery industries on the outskirts of the city. In South Asian developing countries like India, Pakistan and Bangladesh where the economy is strongly dependent on leather manufacturing industries, there is a need to spread proper information regarding the harmful effects of chromium toxicity to the workforce employed in the tannery and also to the people living in the surrounding area. Workers should be provided with the required safety protections like gloves, aprons, foot/shoe covers, masks, etc. Last but most important on an immediate basis is the installation of the proper efficient waste treatment plant, so that, waste should be treated before moving out of the industry.

A comparative study on chromium‐induced micronuclei assessment in the peripheral blood of Hsd:ICR mice

“…Extensive research has focused on exploring the role of Cr(III) as an essential trace element essential for maintaining normal bodily functions. However, several investigators noted that exposure of tannery workers to Cr(III) compounds such as CrK(SO 4 ) 2 and CrCl 3 resulted in DNA damage and oxidative stress (Dubey et al, 2022; Vincent, 2017; Zhang et al, 2008). These findings emphasize the importance of conducting additional investigations to examine the pharmacological properties of Cr(III) in vivo.…”

“…The Cr(III) compounds selected were CrK(SO 4 ) 2 and CrCl 3 , while Cr(VI) compounds included CrO 3 , K 2 CrO 4 , K 2 Cr 2 O 7 , and Na 2 Cr 2 O 7 . The doses were calculated based upon the concentration of Cr contained in the 20 mg/kg dose of CrO 3 (positive control) and on the published genotoxic doses reported for Cr compounds ([Cr] = 10 mg/kg ± 1/3) according to the OECD and EPA guidelines (Dubey et al, 2022; EPA, 1998; Fang et al, 2014; García‐Rodríguez, Santiago‐Moreno, et al, 2023; Itoh & Shimada, 1996; OECD, 2016; Sawicka et al, 2021; Wang et al, 2006). Mice were randomly assigned to the following groups ( n = 5 mice per group), and subsequent assessments were performed: Cr(III) versus Cr(VI) Control; a group of females and another group of males were treated only with the vehicle. Cr(III); two groups of females and two groups of males were i.p.…”

“…The Cr(III) compounds selected were CrK(SO 4 ) 2 and CrCl 3 , while Cr(VI) compounds included CrO 3 , K 2 CrO 4 , K 2 Cr 2 O 7 , and Na 2 Cr 2 O 7 . The doses were calculated based upon the concentration of Cr contained in the 20 mg/kg dose of CrO 3 (positive control) and on the published genotoxic doses reported for Cr compounds ([Cr] = 10 mg/kg ± 1/3) according to the OECD and EPA guidelines (Dubey et al, 2022;EPA, 1998;Fang et al, 2014;García-Rodríguez, Santiago-Moreno, et al, 2023;Itoh & Shimada, 1996;OECD, 2016;Sawicka et al, 2021;Wang et al, 2006).…”

“…As a result, these metallic compounds possess the potential to act as genotoxic and carcinogenic agents (DesMarais & Costa, 2019; IARC, 2018). Although Cr(III) occurs naturally in rocks and soil, this metal enters the food chain when absorbed by plants and may become part of the human diet (Dubey et al, 2022). In fact, Cr(III) has been considered an essential micronutrient that participates in metabolism of sugars and lipids, which is the basis for its presence in food supplements.…”

Hexavalent Chromium Induces Infertility in Rats by Elevating Oxidative Stress, DNA Double-Strand Breaks, Microtubule Disruption, and Aberrant Segregation of Chromosomes in the Metaphase-II Oocytes

“…A recent report by Environment Texas reported the discharge of Cr waste into Calaveras Lake, San Antonio, Texas, posing a potential risk to public health [23]. Leather tanning industries contribute to the extreme Cr contamination in South East Asia, risking the workers to various health hazards [24]. Environmental and health advocates indicated that the Cr contamination in Calaveras Lake threatens the health of anglers, boaters, and people who eat fish from the lake [23].…”