COVID-19 Vaccines: An Updated Overview of Different Platforms

Abstract

Vaccination has been identified as a critical method of disease control in the context of the current COVID-19 pandemic. The goal of this review is to update information on vaccine development and to identify areas of concern that require further research. We reviewed the literature on the development of COVID-19 vaccines, their efficacy, and use in special populations, as well as current vaccination strategies. To date, 170 vaccines are in clinical development, with 41 being already approved for use in various countries. The majority of vaccines approved for human use are vector-, subunit-, DNA-, or mRNA-based vaccines, or inactivated viruses. Because of the ongoing mutation of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, well-studied vector vaccines are losing relevance due to the ability of new virus strains to bypass neutralizing antibodies. Simultaneously, PS-based vaccines are becoming more popular. There is mounting evidence that the immunogenicity of COVID-19 vaccines is linked to their clinical efficacy. This has resulted in a shift in vaccination strategies, as well as the use of booster doses and revaccination. Furthermore, vaccination restrictions for children, pregnant women, the elderly, and people with chronic immunosuppressive diseases have been lifted, allowing more people to be vaccinated. New data on vaccine safety, including the incidence of serious adverse events, have been collected. Despite significant advances in the development of and research on COVID-19 vaccines, many questions remain that require further investigation.

COVID-19 Heart Lesions in Children: Clinical, Diagnostic and Immunological Changes

“…For example, Th17 hyperactivation and disturbances in their subpopulation composition, changes in the ratio of “regulatory” and “pro-inflammatory” Tfh cells as well as a decrease in the control of antibody-producing B cells are very similar to changes, characteristic of a wide range of autoimmune pathologies [ 122 , 123 ], the incidence of which increases sharply after COVID-19 [ 124 ]. Long-term disturbances in the processes of maturation and differentiation of NK-cells and cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, the presence of inhibitory receptors or markers of “cellular aging” on their surface which is accompanied, first of all, by low efficiency of destruction of target cells may reduce the effectiveness of antitumor and antiviral immunity [ 125 , 126 , 127 ]. In addition, hyperactivation of tissue macrophages, the formation of a pool of activated monocytes migrating from the bloodstream against the background of a cytokine “storm” and a change in the balance between T-helpers of different populations (Th1/Th2 and Th17/Treg) in the focus of inflammation contribute to the disruption of the regeneration of inflamed tissue of different localization and development of fibrosis [ 128 , 129 ].…”

SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines, Vaccine Development Technologies, and Significant Efforts in Vaccine Development during the Pandemic: The Lessons Learned Might Help to Fight against the Next Pandemic

“…Whole-virus vaccines can be divided into two broad categories: live attenuated and inactivated. Similarly, component-virus vaccines can be divided into several broad categories: DNA-based, RNA-based, protein subunits, virus-like particles (VLPs)-replicated viral vectors, and nonreplicated viral vectors [ 53 , 54 ] ( Figure 3 A).…”

COVID‐19 and cancer: Dichotomy of the menacing dilemma

“…The need for additional booster regimens and treatment alternatives for people who do not respond to the active COVID-19 vaccine will be determined by future study. 22,[166][167][168] However, it is challenging to speculatively determine the direct impact of COVID-19 vaccination on cancer patients due to the intricacy of the pathogenesis of this disease. Additional research and observational studies for cancer patients should be prioritized given the vaccines' encouraging safety results.…”

“…COV2.S, Pfizer/BioNTech, COVISHIELD, Covovax, Sputnik V, and Moderna have been authorized by the WHO for immunization against COVID-19. [19][20][21][22] However, the ongoing risks posed by emergence of newer and rapidly evolving variants of SARS-CoV-2 (Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, Epsilon, Omicron to name a few) have raised concerns against the management practices and demand timely research to combat the situation. [23][24][25][26][27][28] Therefore, the significance of this review lies in unraveling the intricate interplay between SARS-CoV-2 and cancer and present an arena of scientific inquiry holding potential ramifications for clinical practice and therapeutic strategies.…”