COVID-19: Immunology, Immunopathogenesis and Potential Therapies

Abstract

The Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19) imposed public health emergency and affected millions of people around the globe. As of January 2021, 100 million confirmed cases of COVID-19 along with more than 2 million deaths were reported worldwide. SARS-CoV-2 infection causes excessive production of pro-inflammatory cytokines thereby leading to the development of “Cytokine Storm Syndrome.” This condition results in uncontrollable inflammation that further imposes multiple-organ-failure eventually leading to death. SARS-CoV-2 induces unrestrained innate immune response and impairs adaptive immune responses thereby causing tissue damage. Thus, understanding the foremost features and evolution of innate and adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 is crucial in anticipating COVID-19 outcomes and in developing effective strategies to control the viral spread. In the present review, we exhaustively discuss the sequential key immunological events that occur during SARS-CoV-2 infection and are involved in the immunopathogenesis of COVID-19. In addition to this, we also highlight various therapeutic options already in use such as immunosuppressive drugs, plasma therapy and intravenous immunoglobulins along with various novel potent therapeutic options that should be considered in managing COVID-19 infection such as traditional medicines and probiotics.

Antibody development after COVID-19 vaccination in patients with autoimmune diseases in the Netherlands: a substudy of data from two prospective cohort studies

“… 26 However, previous studies have found that not only humoral immunity, but also cellular immunity is important for protection against SARS-CoV-2. 27 Therefore, the extent to which reduced IgG antibody titres after COVID-19 vaccinations in patients treated with methotrexate (or anti-CD20 therapies) will also result in reduced protection against severe COVID-19 illness is difficult to predict. Therefore, especially because high rheumatic disease activity is associated with a worse disease outcome of COVID-19, 28 discontinuation of methotrexate treatment at the time of vaccination should be considered with caution in patients with autoimmune diseases.…”

Herpes zoster after COVID vaccination

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A Pilot Study on Covid and Autism: Prevalence, Clinical Presentation and Vaccine Side Effects

“…Additionally, it has been hypothesized that the presence of higher levels of interferon-gamma, displayed by ASD subjects [19], could be protective against COVID-19 [20]. Furthermore, the presence of a pro-inflammatory status [21,22] in ASD could be protective against the cytokine storm which is believed to determine severe COVID-19 symptoms [23]. Our results are in line with a recent pre-print meta-analysis [24] which did not observe an increased mortality or risk for severe COVID-19 in patients with developmental disabilities.…”