Could squalene be an added value to use olive by‐products?

Abstract

Squalene (SQ) is an intermediate hydrocarbon in the biosynthesis of phytosterols and terpenes in plants.It is widely used for applications such as skin moisturizers, vaccines, or in carriers for active lipophilic molecules. It has commonly been obtained from sharks, but restrictions on their use have created a need to find alternative sources. We present a review of studies concerning SQ in olive groves to characterize its content and to provide new aspects that may increase the circular economy of the olive tree. There is a large variation in SQ content in virgin olive oil due to cultivars and agronomic issues such as region, climate, types of soil, crop practices, and harvest date. Cultivars with the highest SQ content in their virgin olive oil were 'Nocellara de Belice', 'Drobnica', 'Souri', and 'Oblica'. An interaction between cultivar and aspects such as irrigation practices or agricultural season is frequently observed. Likewise, the production of high SQ content needs precise control of fruit maturation. Leaves represent an interesting source, if its extraction and yield compensate for the expenses of their disposal. Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction from olive oil deodorizer distillates offers an opportunity to obtain high-purity SQ from this derivative. Exploiting SQ obtained from olive groves for the pharmaceutical or cosmetic industries poses new challenges and opportunities to add value and recycle by-products.

Dietary Squalene Induces Cytochromes Cyp2b10 and Cyp2c55 Independently of Sex, Dose, and Diet in Several Mouse Models

“…Recently, Martinez–Beamonte et al. [ 13 ] reported a mean value of 4.6 ± 2.1 g kg −1 of VOO with a wide variation from 0.4 to 10.8 g kg −1 . Likewise, the estimated human intake of squalene ranges from 30 up to 400 mg day −1 (in United States and in Mediterranean countries, respectively) [ 14 ] or even 1 g day −1 in some diets.…”

Comparative Analysis of Essential Bioactive Components of Oils Originating from Three Chinese Loess Plateau Wild Crops

“…Studies have shown that squalene has many biological activities, such as anti‐inflammatory, antioxidation antiatherosclerotic, and antineoplastic activities, and can neutralize xenobiotics and is involved in skin aging. It is widely used in the makeup industry as an adjuvant to boost the antigenicity of vaccines and as a carrier for active lipophilic molecules (Martínez‐Beamonte et al, 2019). Squalene is mainly found in shark liver oil, which is also our major source for obtaining it.…”

“…Oils in plant seeds and pulp contain many metabolites and are an important source of various nutrients required by the human body, such as fatty acids, sterols, squalene and tocopherol, which possess multiple biological activities (Calder, 2009; Han et al, 2010; Lushchak and Semchuk, 2012; Martínez‐Beamonte et al, 2019). Crops growing in harsh environments tend to accumulate more of the abovementioned metabolites, which are implicated in the activation and reinforcement of defense mechanisms in crops that cope with environmental stress (Yang et al, 2018).…”

From Green Technology to Functional Olive Oils: Assessing the Best Combination of Olive Tree-Related Extracts with Complementary Bioactivities

“…They have also been used for the enrichment of functional olive oils with additional health properties [11]. Other olive-derived compounds associated with health effects include terpenoids such as oleanolic and maslinic acids and biosynthesized intermediate products [12]. Most of the biological effects of these compounds have been tested either collectively [8] or individually [13][14][15].…”