Correlates of Academic Performance in Online Higher Education: A Systematic Review

Abstract

The existing steady and continual rise of online learning in higher education has been accelerated by COVID-19 and resulted in a move away from solely on-campus teaching. Prior to the pandemic, online education was providing higher education to students who were returning to study to up-skill, are employed full-time, caring for family members, living rurally or remotely and/or for whom otherwise face-to-face campus learning was not a preference or option. To understand how we can better support online students in their unique circumstances and create an optimal learning environment, we must understand the factors associated with academic achievement within an online setting. This systematic review involved a search of relevant databases published between January 2009 and May 2021 examining factors and constructs related to academic performance in online higher education settings. Across 34 papers, 23 (67.6%) explored factors and constructs related to student characteristics including cognitive and psychological, demographic, university enrolment, and prior academic performance. Twenty-one (61.8%) papers explored learning environment factors including engagement, student experience, course design, and instructor. Our overall synthesis of findings indicates that academic performance in online learning is most strongly associated with motivation (including self-efficacy), and self-regulation. We propose three main implications of our review for online learning stakeholders such as educators and designers. Firstly, we argue that the wellbeing of online learners is important to understand, and future research should explore its impact on students’ experience and success in online higher education. Secondly, we emphasise the importance of developing and designing online courses utilising relevant frameworks and evidence-based principles. Finally, we propose an approach to promoting improved student cognitive and psychosocial experiences (such as self-efficacy, self-regulation, and perceived support) could be achieved by creating and incorporating an online learning orientation module at the commencement of enrolment.Systematic Review Registration: (website), identifier (registration number).

Does online engagement matter? The impact of interactive learning modules and synchronous class attendance on student achievement in an immersive delivery model

“…This paper explores an innovative immersive scheduling delivery model founded on active learning principles that can be flexibly and sustainably applied in hybrid and online modes. Effective and sustainable curriculum reform must be founded upon evidence-based principles that emerge from ongoing evaluation (Chung et al, 2022;Lodge, 2020). This research specifically evidences the impact and value of online learning modules and synchronous classes in immersive delivery, offering the sector a timely understanding of how immersive learning founded on active learning principles can improve student achievement and meet their needs for flexible and engaging education in post-pandemic HE.…”

“…While student achievement in online learning is affected by a range of factors related to the student (e.g., motivation) and the learning environment (e.g., course design) (Chung et al, 2022), learner engagement is commonly acknowledged as a vital contributor to academic performance (Kahu et al, 2013;Kuh, 2009;Shelton et al, 2017). Engagement is a complex and multidimensional construct that can be difficult to define (Ashwin & McVitty, 2015;Fredricks et al, 2016;Zepke, 2018).…”

“…Analysing behavioural engagement is therefore important for exploring how student achievement can be enhanced through curriculum design. One way of measuring behavioural engagement is to examine how frequently students participate by accessing key learning experiences (Chung et al, 2022). In hybrid or online learning environments this access can occur through clicks on learning materials in an LMS or attendance at synchronous classes (Clark & Post, 2021).…”

“…Implementing innovative delivery models founded on evidence-based pedagogical practice may be a key to the sustainable reformation of HE beyond the pandemic. The study of factors contributing to academic performance in online and hybrid learning is of enduring interest in the HE literatureand arguably even more so in post-pandemic times (Chung et al, 2022). While online learning must be carefully designed to avoid cognitive overload (Studente et al, 2019), the use of interactive online materials in unit designs that are hybrid or fully online can give students highly valued choice and control (Devlin & McKay, 2016;Nieuwoudt, 2020).…”

Assessing Satisfaction With Online Courses: Spanish Version of the Learner Satisfaction Survey

“…Although teaching in Spanish universities, as in many other countries around the world, is offered primarily through traditional face-to-face classes, these had to be suspended during 2019 and 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result, faculty had to rely on educational technology so as to adapt their teaching to an online or blended format ( Cahapay, 2020 ; Chung et al, 2022 ). This has led to increasing interest in the assessment of learners’ satisfaction with this new approach to education, it being recognized that satisfaction is crucial to successful and effective learning ( Thurmond et al, 2002 ; Basith et al, 2020 ; Barrutia et al, 2021 ; Flores et al, 2021 ).…”