“…1518), Regina Stefaniak rejected the idea of a universal, masculine, "phallic gaze" derived from film theory claiming that "an historical perspective empowers Gioanna" thus redressing the notion of feminine passivity versus masculine aggression. 18 In terms of secular audiences, Adrian W. B. Randolph and Geraldine A. Johnson have focused on objects like birth trays and Marian reliefs that were destined for the patrician home and for lay female viewers in particular. 19 Such approaches have informed my own work on the reception of maternal imagery in Books of Hours, where I have argued for an analytical strategy that does not confound the agency of female (and male) viewers.…”