Coronavirus Disease 2019 – COVID-19

Abstract

In the past decades, several new diseases have emerged in new geographical areas, with pathogens including Ebola, Zika, Nipah, and coronaviruses (CoVs). Recently, a new type of viral infection has emerged in Wuhan City, China, and initial genomic sequencing data of this virus does not match with previously sequenced CoVs, suggesting a novel CoV strain (2019-nCoV), which has now been termed as severe acute respiratory syndrome CoV-2 (SARS-CoV-2). Although Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is suspected to originate from an animal host (zoonotic origin) followed by human-to-human transmission, the possibility of other routes such as food-borne transmission should not be ruled out. Compared to diseases caused by previously known human CoVs, COVID-19 shows less severe pathogenesis but higher transmission competence, as is evident from the continuously increasing number of confirmed cases globally. Compared to other emerging viruses such as Ebola virus, avian H7N9, SARS-CoV, or MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2 has shown relatively low pathogenicity and moderate transmissibility. Codon usage studies suggest that this novel virus may have been transferred from an animal source such as bats. Early diagnosis by real-time PCR and next-generation sequencing has facilitated the identification of the pathogen at an early stage. Since, no antiviral drug or vaccine exists to treat or prevent SARS-CoV-2, potential therapeutic strategies that are currently being evaluated predominantly stem from previous experience with treating SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and other emerging viral diseases. In this review, we address epidemiological, diagnostic, clinical, and therapeutic aspects, including perspectives of vaccines and preventive measures that have already been globally recommended.

Immunopathology and immunotherapeutic strategies in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection

“…Health Organization (WHO) on 30 January 2020, 2 has now attained pandemic status affecting more than 200 countries. [3][4][5] The infection is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that shares 79.6% sequence identity to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV). 6 As of 14 April 2020, based on COVID- 19 Global Cases, 7 1 920 985 confirmed COVID-19 cases and 119 686 deaths have been reported in 185 countries.…”

Development and Initial Validation of a Scale for Assessing Affecting Factors on Preventive Behaviors of COVID-19 (AFPB-CO): Using the Protection Motivation Theory

“…Preventive methods to decrease the risks of infection contain remaining at home, being no in crowded places, cleaning hands with soap and warm water often and for as a minimum 20 seconds, touching no the mouth, eyes, or nose with dirty hands, and having social distancing about 1.80 meters (9). There is no vaccine or a distinct treatment for COVID-19 (7).…”

Coronavirus Disease 2019 – COVID-19

“…There is no currently licensed specific anti-viral treatment for the MERS and SARS-CoV infections and the primary measure in the clinical management is focused on alleviating clinical symptoms and supportive cares (183)(184)(185)(186). The first therapeutic drugs that might be effective in managing COVID-19 include remdesivir, lopinavir/ritonavir alone or in combination with interferon-β, convalescent plasma, and mAbs (187).…”

“…As like transbodies to the influenza virus, hepatitis C virus, Ebola virus, and Dengue virus(206). Hence generating transbodies directed against CoV intracellular proteins such as papain-like proteases (PLpro), cysteine-like protease (3CLpro) or other non-structural proteins (nsp) that are pivotal for virus replication and transcription, could be a useful approach for safe, broadly effective passive immunization virus exposed subjects and as therapeutics for infected patients.Potential therapeutic agentsTherapeutic options that could be evaluated and utilized for against SARS-CoV-2 infection comprise of molecules binding to virus, molecules or inhibitors targetting specific enzymes implicated in viral replication and transcription, small-molecule inhibitors of the helicase, essential proteases or other proteins of virus, host cell protease inhibitors and endocytosis inhibitors, siRNA, neutralizing antibodies, mAbs targeting host receptor, mAbs interfering with S1 RBD, anti-viral peptide targeting S2, and natural products(7,166,186).The S protein acts as the critical target for developing CoVs antiviral therapies such as S protein inhibitors, S cleavage inhibitors, neutralizing antibodies, RBD-ACE2 blockers, siRNAs, fusion core blockers, and protease inhibitors(168).All these therapeutic approaches have revealed both in vitro and in vivo anti-CoV potentials. Although in vitro researches were carried out with these therapeutics showing efficacy, however, mostly need appropriate support of randomized animal or human trials, therefore might be of limited applicability and require trials against 2019-nCoV so as to gain practical usefulness.…”