Control of Malaria by Blocking Transmission of Plasmodium

Abstract

Malaria is a major global health problem with the greatest burden in sub-Saharan Africa (sSA). Unfortunately, Nigeria accounts for 25 percent of the world’s malaria burden and it accounts for more deaths than HIV/AIDS. The causative agent of malaria is plasmodium species. This paper reviews the current approaches to inhibiting plasmodium transmission, and the phyto active compound currently in use in the sSA (particularly in Nigeria) with the goal to ameliorate the high incidence of malaria and to correlating it with recent progress and scientific understanding.
 
 Using search engines, several databases including Google scholar, Pub Med, Academic Resource Index, Scopus, etcetera, were utilized to source for relevant publications and literatures.
 
 The complex life cycle of the Plasmodium species (causative agent of malaria) gives room for measures that can disrupt its completion. Several methods are currently being tested and experimented on to disrupt the parasite transmission. The disruption of a cell surface transport protein, Feline Leukemia Virus subgroup C Receptor (FLVCR) that pumps heme out of the cell; Gene silencing-techniques used to reduce the levels of FLVCR in the mosquito gut; Prevention of the interaction between the plasmodium TRAP and the Anopheles Saglin protein, which aid the malaria parasite invasion of the mosquito salivary gland; Prevention of the Interaction of Surface Enolase and Plasminogen of Mammalian Blood, disrupting an important role in ookinete invasion of the mosquito midgut; the use of Plants with antimicrobial peptides(cyclotide), that possess structural similarities to SM1 peptide, an inhibitor of plasmodium TRAP-saglin binding;and Use of Phyto-Active Compounds to Block Plasmodium Transmission. These approaches are novel methods in the control and transmission of plasmodium species/malaria.
 
 Chemically, phytochemicals with structural similarities to artemisinin, (asesquiteterpene lactone containing an unusual peroxide bridge) is thought of to be present in certain plants with antimalarial and other medicinal value.

Phytomedicine in Disease Management: In-Silico Analysis of the Binding Affinity of Artesunate and Azadirachtin for Malaria Treatment

“…The GABA A and glycine receptors are part of the larger Cys-loop family of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels ( Jeong and Ryan, 2019 ). The Cys-loop family was suggested in recent review ( Adejoh et al, 2018 ) to be the major molecular component responsible for the anti-plasmodial characteristic of phytomedicine, which possess cyclotide antimicrobial peptides. It is thought that all the subunit in the pentamer shares a conserved architecture, including four transmembrane α helices (M1–M4) with a poorly conserved and often large and disordered intracellular loop between M3 and M4 ( Jeong and Ryan, 2019 ).…”

“…This burden of drug resistance on human well-being has drawn the attention of researchers to focus on and devise other therapeutic means using phytomedicine, especially those involving plant bioactive components mediating ligand interactions ( Jeong and Ryang, 2019 ) and gene modification to combat malaria, caused by Plasmodium parasite. Several strategies including disruption of feline leukemia virus subgroup C receptor (FLVCR); reduction of FLVCR by gene silencing-techniques; prevention of the interaction between Plasmodium thrombospodin related anonymous protein (TRAP) and the Anopheles Saglin protein; prevention of the interaction of surface enolase and plasminogen of mammalian blood meal were suggested to be useful technique for the control of malaria by blocking Plasmodium transmission ( Adejoh et al, 2018 ). Recent review also reported some plants belonging to the family of Violaceae, Rubiaceae, Cucurbitaceae , Poaceae , Asterids, Rosids , and Monocots with cyclotide antimicrobial peptides, which possess structural similarities to SM1 peptide and were considered as a novel competitive inhibitor of Plasmodium TRAP-anopheles saglin binding ( Adejoh et al, 2018 ).…”

“…Several strategies including disruption of feline leukemia virus subgroup C receptor (FLVCR); reduction of FLVCR by gene silencing-techniques; prevention of the interaction between Plasmodium thrombospodin related anonymous protein (TRAP) and the Anopheles Saglin protein; prevention of the interaction of surface enolase and plasminogen of mammalian blood meal were suggested to be useful technique for the control of malaria by blocking Plasmodium transmission ( Adejoh et al, 2018 ). Recent review also reported some plants belonging to the family of Violaceae, Rubiaceae, Cucurbitaceae , Poaceae , Asterids, Rosids , and Monocots with cyclotide antimicrobial peptides, which possess structural similarities to SM1 peptide and were considered as a novel competitive inhibitor of Plasmodium TRAP-anopheles saglin binding ( Adejoh et al, 2018 ). Azadirachtin, a bioactive component of Azadirachta indica A. Juss.…”

“…Azadirachtin, a bioactive component of Azadirachta indica A. Juss. seed extract, was identified to possess structural similarities to artemisinin, a sesquiterpene lactone containing an unusual peroxide-bridge, thought to enhance the anti-plasmodial medicinal characteristic ( Brown, 2006 ; Adejoh et al, 2018 ). This peroxide bridge is believed to be responsible for the mechanism of action of artemisinin ( Adejoh et al, 2018 ).…”