Control of Gypsy Moth, Lymantria dispar, in North America since 1878

Microsporidia Biological Control Agents and Pathogens of Beneficial Insects

“…The moth has been the target of a concerted, large-scale campaign to suppress populations and reduce its spread. Insect pathogens are essential components of this program, including microbial insecticides derived from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki (Btk) and the baculovirus Lymantria dispar nucleopolyhedrovirus (LdMNPV) which are applied by ground and aerial sprays (McManus & Cóska 2007;Solter & Hajek 2009). A fungal pathogen from Japan, Entomophaga maimaiga, has become well established since 1989, causing widespread epizootics that can control gypsy moth populations (Hajek et al 1990;Elkinton et al 1991).…”

“…Nevertheless, the introductions demonstrated the feasibility of potentially establishing gypsy moth-infecting microsporidia from Europe (Jeffords et al 1989;Solter & Becnel 2007;Solter et al 2012). Criteria for regulatory approval to release biological control agents have subsequently become more stringent (Solter & Hajek 2009). The regulatory approval and U.S. release in 2008 of European gypsy moth microsporidia were predicated on a series of detailed studies on taxonomy, host specificity, tissue tropism, and transmission that can serve as a model for evaluating microsporidian biological control candidates.…”

“…The early taxonomy of these microsporidia was unclear partially due to unknown spore dimorphism. More recent analyses have clarified taxonomic placements with four species, Nosema lymantriae (includes two isolates), Nosema portugal, Endoreticulatus schubergi, and Vairimorpha disparis, being the subject of transmission and host specificity studies to assess their biological control potential (Solter et al 1997;Vávra et al 2006;Solter & Hajek 2009;Solter et al 2012). Determining the identity of the various microsporidia reported to infect gypsy moth was critical for providing a link to early research with contemporary studies and to accurately identify relevant species.…”

Host specificity of microsporidia pathogenic to the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (L.): Field studies in Slovakia

“…Eradication of the introduced gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (L.), from North America was deemed impossible by the mid-20th Century, resulting in extensive evaluation and introduction of natural enemies from Europe and Asia for biological control of this serious forest and urban pest (McManus and McIntre, 1981;Solter and Hajek, 2009). Of the numerous predators, parasites and pathogens studied, the L. dispar pathogens are, as a group, decidedly important biological control agents, particularly during outbreaks of the pest (Solter and Hajek, 2009).…”

“…Of the numerous predators, parasites and pathogens studied, the L. dispar pathogens are, as a group, decidedly important biological control agents, particularly during outbreaks of the pest (Solter and Hajek, 2009).…”