Control of Flowering Time

Mouradov, Aidyn; Cremer, Frédéric; Coupland, George

doi:10.1105/tpc.001362

Cited by 794 publications

(172 citation statements)

References 182 publications

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“…These mechanisms permit an adaptively significant integrated response to multiple interacting factors (both internal and external to the plant). In essence, the endogenous developmental competence of plants to flower is integrated with environmental cues that signal the onset of conditions favorable for reproductive success (2).…”

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confidence: 99%

The plant stress hormone ethylene controls floral transition via DELLA-dependent regulation of floral meristem-identity genes

Achard

Baghour

Chapple

et al. 2007

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

324

253

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The length of the Arabidopsis thaliana life cycle depends on the timing of the floral transition. Here, we define the relationship between the plant stress hormone ethylene and the timing of floral initiation. Ethylene signaling is activated by diverse environmental stresses, but it was not previously clear how ethylene regulates flowering. First, we show that ethylene delays flowering in Arabidopsis, and that this delay is partly rescued by loss-of-function mutations in genes encoding the DELLAs, a family of nuclear gibberellin (GA)-regulated growth-repressing proteins. This finding suggests that ethylene may act in part by modulating DELLA activity. We also show that activated ethylene signaling reduces bioactive GA levels, thus enhancing the accumulation of DELLAs. Next, we show that ethylene acts on DELLAs via the CTR1-dependent ethylene response pathway, most likely downstream of the transcriptional regulator EIN3. Ethylene-enhanced DELLA accumulation in turn delays flowering via repression of the floral meristem-identity genes LEAFY (LFY) and SUPPRESSOR OF OVEREXPRESSION OF CONSTANS 1 (SOC1). Our findings establish a link between the CTR1/EIN3-dependent ethylene and GA-DELLA signaling pathways that enables adaptively significant regulation of plant life cycle progression in response to environmental adversity.floral transition ͉ Arabidopsis thaliana ͉ LFY ͉ gibberellin F loral initiation is a major step in the plant life cycle (1). Accordingly, plants have evolved mechanisms for regulating the timing of floral initiation. These mechanisms permit an adaptively significant integrated response to multiple interacting factors (both internal and external to the plant). In essence, the endogenous developmental competence of plants to flower is integrated with environmental cues that signal the onset of conditions favorable for reproductive success (2).In this article, we describe the role of the gaseous phytohormone ethylene in the regulation of floral initiation. Ethylene is already known to modulate Arabidopsis vegetative environmental growth responses (3-5). For example, adverse environmental conditions enhance ethylene production, and thereby restrain growth (3, 4). Ethylene is perceived by the ETR1 family of ethylene receptors (6-10). In the absence of ethylene, ETR1 activates CTR1, a Ser/Thr kinase (closely related to the RAF kinases) that is a negative regulator of ethylene signaling (11,12). Downstream of CTR1 are several positive regulators of ethylene response: EIN2 (a membrane-associated protein whose function is not clear; ref. 13) and the EIN3 and EIN3-like (EIL) transcription factors (14, 15). EIN3 regulates ethylene-responsive genes (6, 15), whereas overexpression of EIN3 results in the constitutive activation of ethylene responses (14). Furthermore, ethylene response depends on EIN3 stability. In the absence of ethylene, EIN3 degradation is promoted by a specific Skp1-cullin-F box protein (SCF) E3 ubiquitin ligase (SCF EBF1/EBF2 ) that targets EIN3 for destruction by the proteasome (16-18). Howev...

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mentioning

confidence: 99%

The plant stress hormone ethylene controls floral transition via DELLA-dependent regulation of floral meristem-identity genes

Achard

Baghour

Chapple

et al. 2007

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

324

253

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“…In A. thaliana, flowering time has been associated with size at reproduction and fecundity (17)(18)(19). Flowering time is sensitive to climatic signals, including day length (photoperiod) and prolonged cold treatment (vernalization), which serve as ecological cues to ensure that reproductive effort occurs in optimal seasonal environments (20). These signals vary systematically with latitude, and adaptation to these ecological cues would be expected to lead to latitudinal clines in the timing of flowering.…”

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confidence: 99%

“…A large number of regulatory genes belonging to several interacting pathways that control flowering time in A. thaliana have been identified (20,24). Genes in the vernalization pathway, including FRIGIDA (FRI) (25) and FLC (26,27) (Fig.…”

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confidence: 99%

Epistatic interaction between Arabidopsis FRI and FLC flowering time genes generates a latitudinal cline in a life history trait

Caicedo

Stinchcombe

Olsen

et al. 2004

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

342

365

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Epistatic gene interactions are believed to be a major factor in the genetic architecture of evolutionary diversification. In Arabidopsis thaliana, the FRI and FLC genes mechanistically interact to control flowering time, and here we show that this epistatic interaction also contributes to a latitudinal cline in this life history trait within the species. rosette leaf number ͉ alternative splicing ͉ linkage disequilibrium ͉ epistatic selection ͉ candidate gene association

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“…The transition has been intensively studied (17), and the regulatory networks controlling the process are perhaps best understood in Arabidopsis (18,19). Environmental factors, including photoperiod (day length), light quality (spectral composition), light quantity (photon flux density), cold temperature (vernalization), and nutrient and water availability play important roles in flowering time control in Arabidopsis (20).…”

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confidence: 99%

A Tobacco Calcium/Calmodulin-binding Protein Kinase Functions as a Negative Regulator of Flowering

Hua

Zhang

Liang

et al. 2004

Journal of Biological Chemistry

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A tobacco calcium/calmodulin-binding protein kinase (NtCBK1) was isolated and identified. The predicted NtCBK1 protein has 599 amino acids, an N-terminal kinase domain, and shares high homology with other calmodulin (CaM)-related kinases. Whereas NtCBK1 phosphorylates itself and substrates such as histone IIIS and syntide-2 in the absence of CaM, its kinase activity can be stimulated by tobacco CaMs. However, unlike another tobacco protein kinase designated NtCBK2, NtCBK1 was not differentially regulated by the different CaM isoforms tested. The CaM-binding domain of NtCBK1 was located between amino acids 436 and 455, and this domain was shown to be necessary for CaM modulation of kinase activity. RNA in situ hybridization showed that NtCBK1 was highly regulated in the transition to flowering. Whereas NtCBK1 mRNA was accumulated in the shoot apical meristem during vegetative growth, its expression was dramatically decreased in the shoot apical meristem after floral determination, and in young flower primordia. The expression of NtCBK1 was up-regulated to high levels in floral organ primordia. Fluctuations in NtCBK1 expression were verified by analysis of tobacco plants expressing green fluorescent protein under the control of the NtCBK1 promoter, suggesting a role of NtCBK1 in the transition to flowering. This conclusion was confirmed by overexpressing NtCBK1 in transgenic tobacco plants, where maintenance of high levels of NtCBK1 in the shoot apical meristem delayed the switch to flowering and extended the vegetative phase of growth. Further work indicated that overexpression of NtCBK1 in transgenic tobacco did not affect the expression of NFL, a tobacco homologue of the LFY gene that controls meristem initiation and floral structure in tobacco. In addition, the promotion of tobacco flowering time by DNA demethylation cannot be blocked by the overexpression of NtCBK1.

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Control of Flowering Time

Cited by 794 publications

References 182 publications

The plant stress hormone ethylene controls floral transition via DELLA-dependent regulation of floral meristem-identity genes

The plant stress hormone ethylene controls floral transition via DELLA-dependent regulation of floral meristem-identity genes

Epistatic interaction between Arabidopsis FRI and FLC flowering time genes generates a latitudinal cline in a life history trait

A Tobacco Calcium/Calmodulin-binding Protein Kinase Functions as a Negative Regulator of Flowering

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