Control Measures and Health Effects of Air Pollution: A Survey among Public Transportation Commuters in Malaysia

Abstract

This research aimed to investigate the control measures used by public transport commuters and their health (physical and psychological) effects due to exposure to air pollution during their daily commute and during haze days. From June to October 2016, 800 public transport commuters in urban cities in the heart of Selangor, Malaysia were interviewed. Of these, 25.4% reported sometimes/often wearing surgical masks during their daily commute, while 92.1% reported such use during haze days. The total control measure score against air pollutants during the daily commute was low; on a control measure scale of 0-18, the median rating during the daily commute was 8 (interquartile range (IQR) 6-10). During haze days, control measures improved slightly (median 14, IQR 12-16). Evidence of adverse health effects was present. During the daily commute under normal conditions, the three highest adverse health experiences were fatigue and weakness (35.5%), coughing (23.6%), and dizziness (18.2%). During haze days, the three highest adverse health experiences were headache (85%), coughing (84.8%), and breathing difficulties (84.5%). On a possible total adverse health (physical and psychological) experience scale of 0-22, the median rating during the daily commute was 1 (IQR 0-3). The median rating during haze days was intensified (median 11, IQR 9-13). Public transportation commuters should be encouraged to enhance various control measures against particulate air pollutants during their daily commute, particularly during haze days, to minimize the adverse health risks associated with air pollutants.

Public awareness and support for environmental protection—A focus on air pollution in peninsular Malaysia

“…Furthermore, during haze episodes, a positive correlation has been observed between pollution levels and increases of asthma, acute respiratory infection, and conjunctivitis outpatient visits in several states [ 11 ]. Other lines of evidence show Malaysian commuters exposed to the haze reported substantially greater adverse health experiences, with complaints such as headache, coughing, and breathing difficulties [ 22 ]. The 2015 Southeast Asian haze event had particularly serious health impacts, with smoke exposure during the episode estimated to have resulted in an excess of 6,500 deaths in Malaysia [ 23 ], substantially higher than the 2,300 deaths estimated from the 2006 Southeast Asian haze event [ 23 ].…”

Commuting on Public Transport: Health Risks and Responses

“…The public, especially daily commuters, should be made aware that wearing an N95 mask is more useful in avoiding the detrimental effects of ambient air pollutants [53] and is especially recommended for people with chronic respiratory disease [54]. In a separate report, we compared the use of a facial protection mask and an N95 mask among commuters in the event of severe haze, and increases in the use of both facial protection masks and N95 masks were reported [55]. Nevertheless, the proportion of the population that uses N95 masks is still low: only 66.0% of respondents reported using N95 masks while commuting during severe haze [55].…”

“…In a separate report, we compared the use of a facial protection mask and an N95 mask among commuters in the event of severe haze, and increases in the use of both facial protection masks and N95 masks were reported [55]. Nevertheless, the proportion of the population that uses N95 masks is still low: only 66.0% of respondents reported using N95 masks while commuting during severe haze [55]. The haze phenomenon in Malaysia is often due to illegal burning of forests and peat and forest fires from neighboring countries.…”

Individual- and Household-Level Interventions to Reduce Air Pollution Exposures and Health Risks: a Review of the Recent Literature

“…Given the slow pace of progress in many settings, individuals struggle to protect themselves and their communities [19][20][21]. A private campaign in Ulaanbaatar raised approximately $40,000 (US) in financial and in-kind support to distribute air purifiers to children's hospital wards [22], and we frequently hear stories of families sending children to schools abroad to escape the pollution.…”