Contribution of Selected Vitamins and Trace Elements to Immune Function

Abstract

Adequate intakes of vitamins and trace elements are required for the immune system to function efficiently. Micronutrient deficiency suppresses immune functions by affecting the innate T-cell-mediated immune response and adaptive antibody response, and leads to dysregulation of the balanced host response. This increases the susceptibility to infections, with increased morbidity and mortality. In turn, infections aggravate micronutrient deficiencies by reducing nutrient intake, increasing losses, and interfering with utilization by altering metabolic pathways. Insufficient intake of micronutrients occurs in people with eating disorders, in smokers (both active and passive), in individuals with chronic alcohol abuse, in patients with certain diseases, during pregnancy and lactation, and in the elderly. With aging a variety of changes are observed in the immune system, which translate into less effective innate and adaptive immune responses and increased susceptibility to infections. Antioxidant vitamins and trace elements (vitamins C, E, selenium, copper, and zinc) counteract potential damage caused by reactive oxygen species to cellular tissues and modulate immune cell function through regulation of redox-sensitive transcription factors and affect production of cytokines and prostaglandins. Adequate intake of vitamins B₆, folate, B₁₂, C, E, and of selenium, zinc, copper, and iron supports a Th1 cytokine-mediated immune response with sufficient production of proinflammatory cytokines, which maintains an effective immune response and avoids a shift to an anti-inflammatory Th2 cell-mediated immune response and an increased risk of extracellular infections. Supplementation with these micronutrients reverses the Th2 cell-mediated immune response to a proinflammatory Th1 cytokine-regulated response with enhanced innate immunity. Vitamins A and D play important roles in both cell-mediated and humoral antibody response and support a Th2-mediated anti-inflammatory cytokine profile. Vitamin A deficiency impairs both innate immunity (mucosal epithelial regeneration) and adaptive immune response to infection resulting in an impaired ability to counteract extracellular pathogens. Vitamin D deficiency is correlated with a higher susceptibility to infections due to impaired localized innate immunity and defects in antigen-specific cellular immune response. Overall, inadequate intake and status of these vitamins and minerals may lead to suppressed immunity, which predisposes to infections and aggravates malnutrition.

Are plasma mineral levels related to antibody response to influenza vaccination in older adults?

“…6 Whereas, another randomized controlled trial that supplemented elderly participants with zinc reported no change in immune response to influenza vaccine in spite of restoration of circulating zinc levels. 7 While copper is known to have a positive effect on immune response, 4 this study found a positive relationship between immune response to influenza vaccine and copper level only when being overweight was included in the model. Day 0 magnesium and phosphorus levels were also significantly related to immune response to A/H1N1 levels when being overweight was included in the model.…”

“…This study did not find positive relationships between immune response to influenza vaccine and zinc, a mineral commonly found to be related to immune function. [3][4][5] A randomized controlled trial of elderly adults supplemented with vitamins, minerals, vitamins and minerals, or neither found that the minerals only-and vitamins plus minerals-supplemented groups had higher antibody response to influenza vaccination, although there was no difference among groups on number of individuals with respiratory infections. 6 Whereas, another randomized controlled trial that supplemented elderly participants with zinc reported no change in immune response to influenza vaccine in spite of restoration of circulating zinc levels.…”

“…3 In general, lower serum levels of minerals such as selenium (Se), zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) are associated with lower immune response. 4,5 Supplementation to normal serum levels of minerals is generally believed to improve immune response, 4,6 although some data suggest otherwise. 7 Most research on trace minerals and immune function has focused on Zn, Cu, Se and iron (Fe) and has been performed among the elderly, because insufficient blood levels of these minerals have been observed in older adults and may play a role in immune function and response.…”

“…7 Most research on trace minerals and immune function has focused on Zn, Cu, Se and iron (Fe) and has been performed among the elderly, because insufficient blood levels of these minerals have been observed in older adults and may play a role in immune function and response. 4,5,8,9,10 Moreover, phosphorus and potassium have been implicated in immune cell function. 11,12 Few studies of the relationship between trace mineral levels and immune function have been specific to influenza vaccination.…”

Relationship between Immune Function and Serum Vitamin A in Japanese Black Beef Cattle

“…VA deficiency impairs both innate immunity and adaptive immune response to infection, resulting in impaired ability to counteract extracellular pathogens [24]. The present study indicated that the immune condition of JB cattle during the feeding stage is compromised by following VA deficiency.…”