“…A joint pilot initiative was set up between PHE, Salford University, the Association of Port Health Authorities (APHA), and eleven sea and airports throughout England and Northern Ireland, to examine the potential for imported mosquitoes. Published in two papers [ 58 , 59 ], the aim of this project was to investigate the level of preparedness of UK seaports and airports for exotic invasive mosquitoes and assess the likelihood of sea and airports as routes of invasive mosquito importation. The objectives of the study were (1) to establish a baseline understanding of the aquatic mosquito habitats in and around major ports in England and Northern Ireland, (2) to conduct active surveillance for invasive mosquitoes at the ports, (3) to identify appropriate surveillance methodologies suited to port environments, and (4) to develop the capability and capacity of Port Health Officers (PHOs) to conduct invasive mosquito surveillance.…”
Section: Resultsmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…The choice of sampling methods (larval surveys (Fig. 4 ), ovitraps, Mosquito Magnet, BG Sentinel) was driven by particular characteristics of each seaport / airport as permitted by their security policy and accessibility, and also the human resources available [ 59 ]. Fig.…”
BackgroundNon-native invasive mosquitoes have for many years made incursions into Europe, and are now established in many European countries. The continued European importation of potential vectors and their expansion within Europe increases their potential for importation and establishment in the UK. Coupled with increasing numbers of returning dengue and chikungunya infected travellers, the potential exists for transmission of vector borne disease in new regions.MethodsTo ensure a cost-effective risk assessment and preparedness strategy the UK employs a multi-faceted approach to surveillance for non-native Aedes mosquitoes, including passive and active surveillance strategies at a local, regional, and national level. Passive surveillance, including a national mosquito recording scheme and local authority nuisance biting reporting, are combined with targeted active surveillance at seaports, airports, used tyre importers, and motorway service stations.ResultsThere is no evidence to date that any invasive Aedes species (e.g., Aedes albopictus, Aedes japonicus, Aedes aegypti) occur in the UK despite sharing many of the same routes that have been found to have facilitated their entry into other countries.ConclusionsThis paper sets in context the UK approaches with other European countries and those recommended by the ECDC. It also highlights future UK strategies to enhance surveillance for non-native mosquitoes to help ensure that incursions can be managed, and these mosquitoes do not establish and public health is protected. Focus will be given to increasing the number of submissions of mosquitoes to passive surveillance schemes and maintaining active surveillance efforts at key routes of potential importation.
“…A joint pilot initiative was set up between PHE, Salford University, the Association of Port Health Authorities (APHA), and eleven sea and airports throughout England and Northern Ireland, to examine the potential for imported mosquitoes. Published in two papers [ 58 , 59 ], the aim of this project was to investigate the level of preparedness of UK seaports and airports for exotic invasive mosquitoes and assess the likelihood of sea and airports as routes of invasive mosquito importation. The objectives of the study were (1) to establish a baseline understanding of the aquatic mosquito habitats in and around major ports in England and Northern Ireland, (2) to conduct active surveillance for invasive mosquitoes at the ports, (3) to identify appropriate surveillance methodologies suited to port environments, and (4) to develop the capability and capacity of Port Health Officers (PHOs) to conduct invasive mosquito surveillance.…”
Section: Resultsmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…The choice of sampling methods (larval surveys (Fig. 4 ), ovitraps, Mosquito Magnet, BG Sentinel) was driven by particular characteristics of each seaport / airport as permitted by their security policy and accessibility, and also the human resources available [ 59 ]. Fig.…”
BackgroundNon-native invasive mosquitoes have for many years made incursions into Europe, and are now established in many European countries. The continued European importation of potential vectors and their expansion within Europe increases their potential for importation and establishment in the UK. Coupled with increasing numbers of returning dengue and chikungunya infected travellers, the potential exists for transmission of vector borne disease in new regions.MethodsTo ensure a cost-effective risk assessment and preparedness strategy the UK employs a multi-faceted approach to surveillance for non-native Aedes mosquitoes, including passive and active surveillance strategies at a local, regional, and national level. Passive surveillance, including a national mosquito recording scheme and local authority nuisance biting reporting, are combined with targeted active surveillance at seaports, airports, used tyre importers, and motorway service stations.ResultsThere is no evidence to date that any invasive Aedes species (e.g., Aedes albopictus, Aedes japonicus, Aedes aegypti) occur in the UK despite sharing many of the same routes that have been found to have facilitated their entry into other countries.ConclusionsThis paper sets in context the UK approaches with other European countries and those recommended by the ECDC. It also highlights future UK strategies to enhance surveillance for non-native mosquitoes to help ensure that incursions can be managed, and these mosquitoes do not establish and public health is protected. Focus will be given to increasing the number of submissions of mosquitoes to passive surveillance schemes and maintaining active surveillance efforts at key routes of potential importation.
“…A recent report observed that Legionella contamination in bath water could be controlled by observing physicochemical parameters, having a good filtration system, and frequent cleaning of the basin (33). However, this filtration system is difficult to apply to the Japanese 24-hour home baths without the addition of chlorine because of the unique disinfection or bacteriological cleaning mechanism, which depends on the biological regulation of microorganisms.…”
“…However, Legionella spp. have been recovered from public spa pools that have been treated and/or emptied appropriately (11,26,27), implying that the concentration of disinfectant necessary to achieve microbial control may be higher than that normally recommended. Thus, domestic spa pool users may be at risk from Legionella despite complying with manufacturers' maintenance instructions.…”
Section: Discussionmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…Key to reducing the microbiological contamination of a spa pool is an appropriate and effective management system. Control measures should include a sufficient concentration of disinfectant (Ն2 ppm of free chlorine) and frequent emptying and cleaning of the pool (26). However, Legionella spp.…”
Legionnaires' disease can result when droplets or aerosols containing legionella bacteria are inhaled and deposited in the lungs. A number of outbreaks have been associated with the use of a spa pool where aeration, a high water temperature, and a large and variable organic load make disinfectant levels difficult to maintain. Spa pool ownership is increasing, and the aim of this study, using two surrogate organisms (MS-2 coliphage and Pseudomonas aeruginosa [a natural contaminant]), was to assess the potential risk to domestic users when disinfection fails. A representative "entry level" domestic spa pool was installed in an outdoor courtyard. The manufacturer's instructions for spa pool maintenance were not followed. A cyclone sampler was used to sample the aerosols released from the spa pool with and without activation of the air injection system. Samples were taken at increasing heights and distances from the pool. An aerodynamic particle sizer was used to measure the water droplet size distribution at each sample point. When the air injection system was inactivated, neither surrogate organism was recovered from the air. On activation of the air injection system, the mean mass of droplets within the respirable range (10 cm above the water line) was 36.8 g cm ؊3 . This corresponded to a mean air concentration of P. aeruginosa of 350 CFU m ؊3 . From extrapolation from animal data, the estimated risk of infection from aerosols contaminated with similar concentrations of Legionella pneumophila was 0.76 (males) and 0.65 (females). At 1 m above and/or beyond the pool, the mean aerosol mass decreased to 0.04 g cm ؊3 and corresponded to a 100-fold reduction in mean microbial air concentration. The estimated risk of infection at this distance was negligible.L egionellae are Gram-negative bacteria found naturally in freshwater environments such as rivers, lakes, and reservoirs and, as such, may also inhabit the municipal water supply and be found in industrial, commercial, and domestic hot and cold water systems (1-3). Legionellosis, primarily Legionnaires' disease (a serious form of pneumonia) but also including nonpneumonic legionellosis and Pontiac fever (a self-limiting flu-like illness), can result when droplets or aerosols containing legionella bacteria are inhaled and deposited in the lungs.Legionnaires' disease is most commonly, but not exclusively, caused by Legionella pneumophila. It is a rare but serious disease. In 2009, there were 344 confirmed cases in England and Wales (4), while in the United States, 3,522 cases were reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (5). It is likely, however, that many more cases are unreported and/or undiagnosed, and it is estimated that Legionnaires' disease accounts for between 3% and 6% of the community-acquired pneumonias that occur in the United Kingdom and United States each year (4, 6). Even with treatment, the case fatality rate of community-acquired Legionnaires' disease ranges from 10% to 15% (4). It is, therefore, important to investigate and asses...
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