Construction and functional evaluation of oral long-acting insulin hydrogel microparticles based on physical and chemical double crosslinking

Long-Acting Gel Formulations: Advancing Drug Delivery across Diverse Therapeutic Areas

“…In contrast, physical crosslinking methods rely on interactions that are not covalent, leading to gels that are often reversible and environmentally responsive. Collagen and hyaluronic acid gels [ 6 ] exemplify this, forming networks through temperature or pH-induced changes, while Tetra-PEG hydrogel microspheres [ 27 ] represent another approach to physical crosslinking [ 17 ].…”

“…This was aimed at examining insulin loading, release, and bioavailability. The hypoglycemic effect and insulin bioavailability were tested in a type 2 diabetes mouse model, showcasing the potential to improve diabetes management through oral delivery, thus reducing the reliance on injections and enhancing patient compliance [ 17 ]. Table 2 shows the objectives, gel compositions, methods of administration, and corresponding references for various studies focused on developing long-acting antidiabetic systems and formulations for diabetes treatment.…”

“…Diabetes and glucose control studies in vivo assess hypoglycemic effects, glycemic regulation [ 11 ], and the duration of drug release [ 12 ], focusing on blood glucose stability, weight management, and tissue analysis [ 13 ]. Pharmacokinetic and efficacy studies characterize sustained release and therapeutic effects [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ].…”

“…Oral and inhaled formulations, like oral insulin hydrogel microparticles and inhaled Ex4-C16-loaded DOCA-GC nanogels, offer non-invasive alternatives, improving the patient experience. These gels have been applied across a range of conditions, demonstrating versatility in treating chronic diseases such as diabetes, cancer, and glaucoma [ 14 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 30 ].…”

“…This indicates a growing need for treatments that provide both sustained release and targeted action [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. In diabetes management, long-acting gels are crucial for the continuous and controlled delivery of medications to effectively regulate blood glucose levels, reflecting a trend towards enhancing patient convenience and treatment success [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ].…”