Consolidating the State of Knowledge: A Synoptical Review of Wind Energy’s Wildlife Effects

Abstract

Wind energy development contributes substantially to achieve climate protection goals. Unintended side effects, especially on wildlife, have long been discussed and substantial research has evolved over the last decade. At this stage, it is important to identify what we have learnt so far, as well as which predominant uncertainties and gaps remain. This review article aims to consolidate the state of knowledge, providing a qualitative analysis of the main effects of wind energy development on- and offshore, focusing on frequently studied species groups (bats, breeding and resting birds, raptors, migratory birds, marine mammals). We reviewed over 220 publications from which we identified predominant hypotheses that were summarized and displayed in tables. Journal publications, conference contributions, and further studies have been considered. We found that research focusing on offshore wind energy within the last couple of years has increased significantly as well, catching up with the vast amount of onshore studies. Some hypotheses have been verified by numerous publications and a consensus has been reached (e.g., correlation between bat activity and weather factors), while others are still being debated more (e.g., determination of migratory corridors) or remain unknown (e.g., effect on population level). Factors influencing potential effects were mainly related to species characteristics (morphology, phenology, abundance, behavior, and response to turbines) or site characteristics (landscape features, weather, and habitat quality). Consolidating the state of research provides the groundwork for the identification of mitigation measures and advanced planning approaches. However, the quantification of effects remains challenging and uncertainties will always persist.

Offshore Wind Energy: Good Practice in Impact Assessment, Mitigation and Compensation

“…In addition to an extensive field research programme, novel observation methods such as aerial digital survey techniques and bird migration radars were developed. The research of the StUKplus project and the international research obtained similar results regarding the environmental impacts of OWFs (BSH and BMU, 2014;Lüdeke, 2015;Schuster et al, 2015).…”

“…Regarding the impacts of OWFs on benthos (fauna living in, on or nearby the seabed), an increase in their number was observed after OWF construction (Ashley et al, 2014;Coates et al, 2014;Dannheim et al, 2014;Vaissière et al, 2014;Bergman et al, 2015;Schuster et al, 2015;Hammar et al, 2016). However, the species composition changed as a result of the new habitats.…”

Electricity Externalities, Siting, and the Energy Mix: A Survey

“…Harrison 2011). In addition, there are effects of wind parks -both onshore and offshore -on wildlife (Drewitt and Langston 2006, Mathew 2006, Leung and Yang 2012, Schubert et al 2015). Regarding solar power, possible impairments include glare risks and visual impacts on buildings as well as on landscapes in case of free-standing solar plants (Chiabrando et al 2009).…”

The time has come for offshore wind power in the United States

“…Scientific studies in Europe, as part of preconstruction environmental assessments, and more importantly, dedicated construction and postconstruction research programs, have shed considerable light on the ways in which marine wildlife responds to the construction and operation of offshore wind turbines. These studies have shown that the environmental effects of properly sited, executed, and operated wind projects are, as a general rule, low level (18). For example, fatality rates of birds are lower than might have been anticipated given avoidance behavior (19), and impacts on dolphins and porpoises have been identified as being more of a short-term nature than resulting in long-term consequences (20)(21)(22).…”

“…An offshore wind project can have a myriad of consequences for wildlife, including displacement, barrier effects, habitat change, disturbance, and fatality (18). Fixed platforms can be used to gain a better understanding of fish, marine mammal, turtle, and seabird movements, decreasing risks through enhanced site selection, and by lowering the cost and shortening the time to investigate individual sites.…”