Concentrations of Seven Phthalate Monoesters in Infants and Toddlers Quantified in Urine Extracted from Diapers

Abstract

Carrying out exposure studies on children who are not toilet trained is challenging because of the difficulty of urine sampling. In this study, we optimized a protocol for urine collection from disposable diapers for the analysis of phthalate metabolites. The exposure of Swiss children (n = 113) between 6 months and 3 years of life to seven phthalates was assessed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry measurements. The study showed limited exposures to phthalates, with only 22% of the samples containing some of the metabolites investigated. The three most frequently detected metabolites were monoethyl phthalate, mono-cyclohexyl phthalate, and mono-benzyl phthalate. We also detected mono-n-octyl phthalate and mono(3,5,5-trimethylhexyl) phthalate, which have rarely been observed in urine from infants and toddlers; therefore, di-n-octyl phthalate and bis(3,5,5-trimethylhexyl) phthalate can be considered as potentially new emerging phthalates. This study presents an initial snapshot of the Swiss children’s exposure to phthalates and provides a promising approach for further phthalate biomonitoring studies on young children using disposable diapers as urine sampling technique.

Childhood exposures to environmental chemicals and neurodevelopmental outcomes in congenital heart disease

“…[ 4 , 42 ] In the current study, we demonstrate that toddlers with CHD are exposed to complex mixtures of chemicals (e.g., phthalates, phenols, parabens, pesticides), some of which are known or suspected EDCs and neurotoxicants, during everyday life. There is significant variability in both the pattern and magnitude of exposures; however, the magnitude of exposure is similar to that reported for infants and toddlers in the general population [ 40 , 41 ]. Greater concentrations of biomarkers of exposure to these chemicals, especially phthalates, are associated with poorer performance for language and motor skills at 18 months of age after adjustment for known risk factors for adverse neurodevelopment outcomes.…”

“…Because of concern over contamination during urine sample collection, these biomarkers were excluded from the analysis. To provide context about the magnitude of exposures compared to the general population, the biomarkers included in the final analysis were compared to available data from two published studies [ 40 , 41 ] ( S3 Table ). The exposures for the current study were similar to previously reported data.…”

“…The most commonly identified exposure was to phthalates [diesters of phthalic acid] used as solvents and plasticizers (to give flexibility) in many types of products such as food packaging, cosmetics, medical devices, toys, dentures, paints, adhesives, and nail polishes. Phthalates are not covalently bound and thus handling these products can lead to significant exposures [ 41 ]. In addition, phthalates and pesticides are commonly found in household dust [ 11 , 12 ].…”

Quantitative Measurement of Phthalate Exposure Biomarker Levels in Diaper-Extracted Urine of Japanese Toddlers and Cumulative Risk Assessment: An Adjunct Study of JECS Birth Cohort

“…The GM values of the corresponding phthalate metabolites were relatively lower in Japanese toddlers compared to those in the earlier studies, although all of the metabolites could not be compared since limited numbers of phthalate metabolites had been estimated. − The median concentrations of some metabolites in Japanese toddlers were comparable to or lower than those measured in 1–28-month-old children in the USA, Finland, Sweden, and Germany. ,,, Phthalate exposure levels including DnBP, DiBP, and DEHP in Japanese toddlers were relatively lower than the levels measured in pregnant women in 2005–2006 and Japanese children and adults in 2009–2010. − Higher exposure levels of DnBP and DiBP might be due to medications and increased use of personal care products; high exposure levels of DEHP were associated with household dust. , Exposure levels of phthalates in Japanese toddlers were expected to decrease over time due to the government’s restriction on the use of some phthalates in children’s toys and other playing accessories. However, the recent Hokkaido Study on Environment and Children’s Health reported that from 2012 to 2017, the exposure level of phthalates in 7-year-old Japanese children was stable .…”

“…In a few earlier studies, phthalate metabolite concentrations were measured in the diaper-extracted urine of Swiss, Chinese, and South Korean children. − The participants in these studies were infants, toddlers, and children (3 months to 3 years), and the sample size was relatively small (113, 15, and 171 in Swiss, Chinese, and Korean studies, respectively). We have markedly improved the urine extraction procedure in terms of time and cost , and also validated all of the parameters of the present method using DESU, following the analytical guidelines formulated by the authorities.…”