Drying refers to the process of removing water or another solvent from a material by evaporation. The process is not only applied to achieve the desired end-product but also enables preservation, efficient handling and transportation. Many dryer types have been reported in literature and are used in the drying of solutions, slurries, pastes, particulate solids or sheets (Mujumdar, 2015;Ratti, 2001). The most prominent dryers, covering over 85% of all industrial dryers, are convective with either hot air or combustion gases as heat transfer medium (Mujumdar, 2015). Among the convection drying technologies, spray drying is a widespread technique used to transform a liquid feed into powder particles by contacting an atomized feed with a hot drying gas (Masters, 1985). Spray drying results in powders with long shelf lives, which can easily be transported and readily reconstituted. The industrial application of spray drying began already in the 1920s with milk and detergents (Keshani et al., 2015). Over the years, spray drying evolved as an industrial drying technology with a wide range of applications in the food, pharmaceutical and chemical industries (Fu et al., 2020;Vehring, 2008). The array of spray-dried products has extended in recent years owing to the many advantages of the technique, including its high production capacity and fast drying rate, controllable continuous mode of operation, applicability to heat-sensitive materials and its suitability for drying various types of feedstocks (Filková & Mujumdar, 1995). Despite the advantages and widespread use of spray dryers, it is still difficult to predict and thus control the quality of the powder that is produced. This is caused for a substantial part by the limited understanding of the particle formation process (Vicente et al., 2013). The desired product quality is usually attained by inefficient trial-and-error approaches that need to be repeated for different products and spray drying systems. The lack of understanding and limited scope for control of the particle formation process negatively affects the operational efficiency of spray dryers, for instance due to fouling and suboptimal production capacity. This may lead to higher energy costs than necessary and may result in significant material losses when the final powder fails to meet the desired quality specifications. Hence, understanding the particle formation process is considered key for improving the operation efficiency, with possible energy and material savings, while achieving the desired powder quality.During spray drying, droplets generated by atomization of the liquid feed are converted into powder particles with a particular size, surface composition and morphology depending onThe single droplet drying process is frequently used to interpret the morphology development during industrial spray drying, though it is undoubtedly a simplified, idealized version of the spray drying process. For instance, many single droplet drying techniques dry droplets with larger droplet diameter when compared ...