Computational Evidence That Frequency Trajectory Theory Does Not Oppose But Emerges From Age‐of‐Acquisition Theory

Abstract

According to the age-of-acquisition hypothesis, words acquired early in life are processed faster and more accurately than words acquired later. Connectionist models have begun to explore the influence of the age ⁄ order of acquisition of items (and also their frequency of encounter). This study attempts to reconcile two different methodological and theoretical approaches (proposed by Lambon Ehsan, 2006 andSeidenberg, 2002) to age-limited learning effects. The current simulations extend the findings reported by Zevin and Seidenberg (2002) that have shown that frequency trajectories (FTs) have limited and specific effects on word-reading tasks. Using the methodological framework proposed by Lambon Ralph and Ehsan (2006), which makes it possible to compare word-reading and picture-naming tasks in connectionist networks, we were able to show that FT has a considerable influence on age-limited learning effects in a picture naming task. The findings show that when the input-output mappings are arbitrary (simulating picture naming tasks), the links formed by the network become entrenched as a result of early experience and that subsequent variations in frequency of exposure of the items have only a minor impact. In contrast, when the mappings between input-output are quasi-systematic or systematic (simulating word-reading tasks), the training of new items was generalized and resulted in the suppression of age-limited learning effects. At a theoretical level, we suggest that FT, which simultaneously takes account of time and the level of exposure across time, represents a more precise and modulated measure compared with the order of introduction of the items and may lead to innovative hypotheses in the field of age-limited learning effects.Correspondence should be sent to Martial Mermillod,

Determinants of naming latencies, object comprehension times, and new norms for the Russian standardized set of the colorized version of the Snodgrass and Vanderwart pictures

“…First of all, rated AoA measures have a truly composite nature (see Bonin et al, 2004;Zevin & Seidenberg, 2002), with the result that we still do not understand the extent to which rated AoA scores index the real age/order of acquisition of words. Thus, a number important methodological issues have been raised with regard to this variable (Bonin et al, 2004;Bonin, Méot, Mermillod, Ferrand, & Barry, 2009;Mermillod, Bonin, Méot, Ferrand, & Paindavoine, 2012;Zevin & Seidenberg, 2002). Second, the locus of rated AoA is still debated, since its influence has been ascribed to several potential loci: object comprehension, the semantic level, the word form level, and the link between lemmas and lexemes (see Johnston & Barry, 2006, for a comprehensive review).…”

“…Second, the locus of rated AoA is still debated, since its influence has been ascribed to several potential loci: object comprehension, the semantic level, the word form level, and the link between lemmas and lexemes (see Johnston & Barry, 2006, for a comprehensive review). For these reasons, certain researchers have suggested making use of less controversial measures (i.e., frequency trajectory) and/or approaches (simulated learning, neural networks) to investigate age-limited learning effects in lexical processing (e.g., Ellis & Lambon Ralph, 2000;Izura et al, 2011;Mermillod et al, 2012). Frequency trajectory refers to variations in the acquisition of words over individuals' lifetimes and has been found to influence object naming but not word reading or spelling to dictation (Bonin et al, 2004;Zevin & Seidenberg, 2002, 2004.…”

On the influence of typicality and age of acquisition on semantic processing: Diverging evidence from behavioural and ERP responses

“…Within these models the focus is not on specific processing levels, such as phonological or semantic levels, but on the strength of connections between representations affecting the entire cognitive system. Ellis and Lambon Ralph (2000) demonstrated a crucial benefit of early acquired concepts over late acquired concepts in their network model, which is due to the continuing loss of the network's plasticity over life (Mermillod et al, 2012;Zevin and Seidenberg, 2002).…”

First learned words are not forgotten: Age-of-acquisition effects in the tip-of-the-tongue experience

“…Lambon Ralph and Ehsan (2006) further argued that this account predicts that AoA effects should mainly emerge in those circumstances in which the input-tooutput mappings are arbitrary, as for instance in the semanticto-phonology mappings involved in picture-naming tasks. By contrast, when the mappings are not arbitrary, it would be possible to generalize from early-acquired (trained) words to later acquired (untrained) words, leading to a cancellation or reduction of AoA effects (see also Mermillod, Bonin, Méot, Ferrand, & Paindavoine, 2012;Zevin & Seidenberg, 2002). Word reading, mainly in languages with transparent orthography-to-phonology conversion systems, is an example of nonarbitrary input-to-output mappings.…”