Comparison of Antibiotic Resistance Mechanisms in Antibiotic-Producing and Pathogenic Bacteria

Abstract

Antibiotic resistance poses a tremendous threat to human health. To overcome this problem, it is essential to know the mechanism of antibiotic resistance in antibiotic-producing and pathogenic bacteria. This paper deals with this problem from four points of view. First, the antibiotic resistance genes in producers are discussed related to their biosynthesis. Most resistance genes are present within the biosynthetic gene clusters, but some genes such as paromomycin acetyltransferases are located far outside the gene cluster. Second, when the antibiotic resistance genes in pathogens are compared with those in the producers, resistance mechanisms have dependency on antibiotic classes, and, in addition, new types of resistance mechanisms such as Eis aminoglycoside acetyltransferase and self-sacrifice proteins in enediyne antibiotics emerge in pathogens. Third, the relationships of the resistance genes between producers and pathogens are reevaluated at their amino acid sequence as well as nucleotide sequence levels. Pathogenic bacteria possess other resistance mechanisms than those in antibiotic producers. In addition, resistance mechanisms are little different between early stage of antibiotic use and the present time, e.g., β-lactam resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Lastly, guanine + cytosine (GC) barrier in gene transfer to pathogenic bacteria is considered. Now, the resistance genes constitute resistome composed of complicated mixture from divergent environments.

Resistance-Nodulation-Division Efflux Pump, LexABC, Contributes to Self-Resistance of the Phenazine Di-N-Oxide Natural Product Myxin in Lysobacter antibioticus

“…Antibiotic-producing microorganisms have evolved several self-resistance mechanisms to prevent autotoxicity, such as antibiotic efflux, antibiotic modification, self-sacrifice, target repair or protection ( Ogawara, 2019 ). One of the self-resistance mechanisms is that efflux pumps transport toxic compounds outside of the cells ( Yan et al, 2020 ).…”

PHERI - Phage Host Exploration pipeline

“…60%) that encapsulate a DNA or RNA genome (40%) [3,4]. Phages are among the most abundant entities in the biosphere, with an estimated 10 31 -10 32 phages in the world at any given time, moreover play a crucial role in regulating bacterial [1] populations; for example, phages are responsible for the death of approximately 20%-40% of all marine surface bacteria every 24 h [5][6][7]. They are ubiquitously and naturally distributed in all environments populated by bacterial hosts, including soil, water, air, and the intestines of humans and other animals [7][8][9][10].…”

“…WHO calls attention to the infections, especially by Klebsiella pneumoniae, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and Neisseria gonorrhoeae , and blood poisoning and foodborne diseases. These infections are becoming harder and sometimes nearly impossible to treat [1]. Moreover, antibiotic resistance is now recorded in every country [2].…”

Acquisition, Divergence, and Personalization of the Female Perineal Microbiomes Are Driven by Developmental Milestones and Disrupted by Urinary Tract Infection: A Pilot Study

“…The influence of early antibiotic exposure on microbiome maturation is understudied. Such liberal use of antibiotics at a critical time during development is particularly concerning for the potential impact on the natural development of a diverse microbiome as well as the development of antibiotic resistance within the microbiome, creating a “resistome” ( 7 ). The resistome has important therapeutic implications for treatment of future episodes of disease and the long-term health of children as they progress to adulthood.…”