Comparative Analysis of Pesticide Use Determinants Among Smallholder Farmers From Costa Rica and Uganda

Abstract

Pesticides are used globally in agriculture and pose a threat to the health of farmers, communities, and the environment. Smallholder farmers in low- and middle-income countries have generally a low socio-economic status and educational level. Consequently, they are particularly vulnerable to negative impacts of pesticides on their health, yields, or land. In a Knowledge, Attitude, and Practices study, we compared the pest management practices between a market-oriented farming system in Zarcero County, Costa Rica, and a subsistence-based farming system in Wakiso District, Uganda. We conducted a cross-sectional survey among smallholder farmers from Costa Rica (n = 300) in 2016 and from Uganda (n = 302) in 2017. We enrolled conventional and organic farmers, but also farmers with mixed practices and non-applicators of any pest management strategy. We found that the majority of pesticides used in both case studies are classified as highly hazardous by the World Health Organization. While more than 90% of smallholder farmers from both countries were aware of the negative health effects of pesticide exposure, <11% in Costa Rica and <2% in Uganda reported using personal protective equipment every time they handled or applied pesticides. Hygiene and other safe use practices were not adopted by all farmers (<61%), especially among farmers applying more hazardous pesticides. Conventional farmers from Costa Rica (14%) and Uganda (19%) reported disposing pesticide residuals into rivers. Using a logistic regression we found that organic farmers were more likely to having been trained on safe pesticide use practices. Using a robust regression, we observed that smallholder household income was primarily driven by education and not directly by the use of synthetic pesticides. Our results suggest that negative effects of pesticides can be managed over the whole life cycle, from purchase, via storage and application to residual and waste management by fostering professionalization of farmers. We advise future safe use and handling interventions to consider the pesticide use-related socioeconomic and demographic findings highlighted in this paper.

What agro-input dealers know, sell and say to smallholder farmers about pesticides: a mystery shopping and KAP analysis in Uganda

“…Another explanation may be that agro-input dealers perceive broad-spectrum pesticides (which are most often also the cause of the higher toxicity) as more effective or are more experienced with them. When comparing the WHO toxicity classes found in previous research, there seems to be no change away from the products of class I and II [ 1 – 3 ], indicating an explicit choice by agro-input dealers to keep these products on the market. This means that a change is currently unlikely, indicating the need for actors higher up in the value-chain to place more emphasis on the risks of such pesticides.…”

“… Note: The different columns denote correct (Yes) or incorrect (No) identification of the active ingredients’ (AI) use, knowing the AI name, but not its use (don’t know) or stating the AI is unknown. The proportion (last column) indicates the ratio between correct (yes) and wrong (no) answers The fifteen AI were selected as most commonly used AI in the study area [ 3 ] …”

“…Mystery shopping has shown that when asked, agro-input dealers can also advise smallholders on health topics, but without necessarily providing best practice answers. Although we know that awareness does not always translate into action [ 1 – 3 ], it is still essential that farmers are informed about health and environmental risks as well as their prevention. While regulators and the WHO consider the label one of the main tools to share risk, safety, and health information on pesticides, the evaluation in this study of agro-input dealers’ advice has shown that label explanation is rare.…”

“…Pesticides can have negative effects on human and environmental health, especially when not handled as intended. Smallholder pesticide use is increasing in low- and middle-income countries, and is often practiced without personal protective equipment (PPE) [ 1 – 3 ]. Pesticide exposure can lead to acute symptoms like headache and respiratory distress, or chronic health effects, such as increased risk for cancer and cognitive health impairment [ 4 , 5 ].…”

“…To fill this gap we conducted a study among agro-input dealers in Uganda. Previous studies have investigated farmers’ pesticide use and related risks as well as information behavior in Uganda, identifying agro-input dealers as the primary provider of pesticides and an information source for smallholders on risk factors for safe pesticide use [ 2 , 3 , 8 , 23 ]. This study investigated what pesticides agro-input dealers sold, what safety advice they gave to farmers, what they knew about pesticides and believed about the risks, and how they are abiding by the laws, recommended guidelines, and best practices to prevent pesticide risk situations in their own shops.…”