Comparative analysis of in vitro antioxidant capacities of mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs)

Distribution, Contents, and Types of Mycosporine-Like Amino Acids (MAAs) in Marine Macroalgae and a Database for MAAs Based on These Characteristics

“…MAAs in Chondrus crispus [57], Palmaria palmata [57], Porphyra dioica [57], Porphyra haitanensis [127] and Rhodymenia pseudopalmata [104] have been separated and identified. The preparation of porphyra-334 in Bangia atropurpurea [47], Eucheuma [128], Gracilaria changii [95], Porphyra vietnamensis [78], Porphyra MAAs were multi-functional compounds, namely included UV-photoprotective activity [54], antioxidant properties [90,118], and other possible activities, such as anti-desiccant, protective agents against temperature variations [119], and etc. [23,[27][28][29][30][31].…”

“…Therefore, those Chlorophytes [4,5,73], Phaeophytes [73], and two Rhodophytes [37,73] species mentioned above were good sources of mycosporine-glycine. Some reports have determined that mycosporine-glycine, porphyra-334, and shinorine have better antioxidants properties [29,39,88,89], and therefore many macroalgal Rhodophytes species which belonged to the orders Bangiales, Ceramiales, Gigartinales, and Gracilariales have been considered to constitute prolific sources of porphyra-334 and shinorine, e.g., Acanthophora specifera [5], Bangia atropurpurea [65], Caloglossa apomeiotica [5], Porphyra dioica [57], Bostrychia radicans [40], Ceramium nodulosum [4], Catenella impudica [40], Curdiea racovitzae [32], Gracilaria domingensis [90], Gymnogongrus griffithsiae [4], and Mastocarpus stellatus [4], etc. [3,5,32,40,48,50,74,85,[91][92][93].…”

Efficient Extraction and Antioxidant Capacity of Mycosporine-Like Amino Acids from Red Alga Dulse Palmaria palmata in Japan

“…Mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) are synthesized and accumulated as photoprotective compounds by marine phototrophs (e.g., dinoflagellates, cyanobacteria and macro algae) [ 1 , 9 , 10 ]. MAAs are nitrogenous secondary metabolites of the low molecular weight (<400 Da) with the maximum absorption ranging from 310 to 360 nm and have the high molar extinction coefficients (28,100 to 50,000 M −1 cm −1 ) [ 10 , 11 ]. MAAs are composed of a cyclohexanone or cyclohexenimine ring conjugated with amino acids, amino alcohols, or amino groups.…”

“…MAAs are classified into two types by the core structure of cyclohexanone or cyclohexenimine ring, showing oxo-MAAs or imino-MAAs, respectively. The major oxo-MAAs are mycosporine-glycine and mycosporine-taurine, while major imino-MAAs are shinorine, palythine, asterina-330, porphyra-334, usujirene and palythene [ 1 , 10 ]. According to Hoyer et al [ 12 ], the biosynthesis pattern of MAAs in red alga is classified into three categories: (i) species with no capacity for MAAs biosynthesis; (ii) species with the high content of MAAs permanently; (iii) species changing the content of MAAs with the environmental conditions.…”

“…While the species of category (i) typically represent red seaweed of lower sublittoral species of category (ii) and (iii) grow from the mid-sublittoral zone to the supralittoral zone [ 12 , 13 ]. Biosynthesis of MAAs is expected to the shikimate pathway and the pentose phosphate pathway, and many MAAs are produced in the synthesis steps [ 1 , 10 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ]. However, the ratio and product patterns of MAAs are still unclear because of the complicated environmental condition and the lack of knowledge for seaweed’s molecular biology [ 18 ].…”