Commercial Red Food Dyes Preparations Modulate the Oxidative State in Three Model Organisms (Cucumis sativus, Artemia salina, and Danio rerio)

Abstract

The growing environmental spreading of food synthetic dyes and bio-colors have the potential for altering organisms’ redox states. Here, three model species for aquatic pollution trials, Cucumis sativus seeds, Artemia salina cysts, and Danio rerio embryos, were short-term exposed to a fixed concentration of the artificial red E124, and two red bio-colors, cochineal E120, and vegan red (VEGR). In the animal models, we evaluated the total reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the susceptibility to in vitro oxidative stress, and in C. sativus, H2O2 production and antioxidant capacity. We also measured organismal performance indices (routine oxygen consumption in the animal models, dark oxygen consumption, and photosynthetic efficiency in C. sativus). In C. sativus, only E124 increased ROS and affected dark oxygen consumption and photosynthetic efficiency, while all dyes enhanced the antioxidant defenses. In the A. salina nauplii, all dyes increased ROS, while E120 and E124 reduced the susceptibility to oxidative stress. In D. rerio, treatments did not affect ROS content, and reduced oxidative stress susceptibility. Our data show that red food dyes affect the redox state of the developing organisms, in which ROS plays a significant role. We suggest a potentially toxic role for red food dyes with environmentally relevant consequences.

Comparative Toxicity of Vegan Red, E124, and E120 Food Dyes on Three Rapidly Proliferating Model Systems

“…Anticipation/delay in growth, however, are indicative of profound effects on metabolism and naupliar physiology. In a recent paper, we demonstrate that all red dyes increase ROS, while E120 and E124 reduced the susceptibility to oxidative stress [9].…”

“…A final consideration should be made on the relatively high concentration of colorants used in these experiments [8,9]. It should be considered that the concentrations of dyes are significantly high in polluted areas (up to 0.5 gr/L; [1]), that many dyes may be present at the same time, and last but not least, that the organisms are exposed chronically, from ovo/seed to death, with multiple routes of access.…”

“…[6]. Since then, evidence of E124 toxicity has been produced in both plants [7,8] and animal models [8], in which interference with the oxidative state was reported [9]. This evidence led to its progressive replacement with a natural pigment, the cochineal red, also known as carmine or E120.…”

“…The importance of the effects on plants should not be neglected, as contaminated waste waters are used in water gardens and cultures. The concentration of dyes was chosen according to previous papers [8,9], two-fold higher than those reported for other azo dyes in water [1], so facilitating the identification of the potential targets of toxicity.…”

Klebsiella pneumoniae Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Protect Artemia salina from Fish Pathogen Aeromonas sp.: A Combined In Vitro, In Vivo, and In Silico Approach

“…Artemia is a genus of crustaceans that live in saltwater, commonly conveyed as a type of shrimp. Artemia salina larvae (also so-called brine shrimp) are considered a pathogen-disease study model for all life stages of marine crustaceans and early developing life stages of marine fishes because they all have a similar immune system [ 18 , 19 ]. Its body has three main segments: the head, thorax, and abdomen [ 20 ].…”