Cognitive Training with Neurofeedback Using NIRS Improved Cognitive Functions in Young Adults: Evidence from a Randomized Controlled Trial

Abstract

(1) Background: A previous study has shown that cognitive training with neurofeedback (CT-NF) using down-regulation improves cognitive functions in young adults. Neurofeedback has two strategies for manipulating brain activity (down-regulation and upregulation). However, the benefit of CT-NF with the upregulation of cognitive functions is still unknown. In this study, we investigated whether the upregulation of CT-NF improves a wide range of cognitive functions compared to cognitive training alone. (2) Methods: In this double-blinded randomized control trial (RCT), 60 young adults were randomly assigned to one of three groups: CT-NF group, CT alone group, and an active control (ACT) group who played a puzzle game. Participants in the three groups used the same device (tablet PC and 2ch NIRS (near-infrared spectroscopy)) and performed the training game for 20 min every day for four weeks. We measured brain activity during training in all groups, but only CT-NFs received NF. We also measured a wide range of cognitive functions before and after the intervention period. (3) Results: The CT-NF groups showed superior beneficial effects on episodic memory, working memory, and attention compared to the CT alone and ACT groups. In addition, the CT-NF group showed an increase in brain activity during CT, which was associated with improvements in cognitive function. (4) Discussion: This study first demonstrated that the CT-NF using the upregulation strategy has beneficial effects on cognitive functions compared to the CT alone. Our results suggest that greater brain activities during CT would enhance a benefit from CT.

Auditory Cognitive Training Improves Brain Plasticity in Healthy Older Adults: Evidence From a Randomized Controlled Trial

“…We used the permutation ANCOVA test because it is suitable for small sample analysis and is freely distributed. Therefore, the permutation ANCOVA test is suitable and sufficiently powered for present study ( Kulason et al, 2018 ; Nouchi et al, 2020b , 2022 ). The changes in scores in each group (AC training group, A training group, C training group, and active control group) were the dependent variables.…”

“…All training groups performed three cognitive training tasks (short-term memory, working memory, and attention training tasks) with intensity level controlled audio stimuli ( Figure 2 ). The short-term, working memory, and attention training tasks were developed based on our previous cognitive training studies ( Nouchi et al, 2016a , 2019 , 2020a , 2021 , 2022 ; Takeuchi et al, 2020 ). Each cognitive training task had 4 task difficulty levels as a cognitive training factor [from level 1 (easy) to level 4 (difficult)].…”

The Effect of Music-Based Intervention on General Cognitive and Executive Functions, and Episodic Memory in People with Mild Cognitive Impairment and Dementia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Recent Randomized Controlled Trials

“…It should be important to consider whether the intervention period of the included studies was sufficient to evaluate improvements in cognitive function. Previous systematic review and meta-analysis for non-pharmacological interventions such as cognitive training, exercise, nutrition revealed that previous studies used the similar intervention periods (from 4 to 12 weeks) [ 25 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 ]. The short-term intervention was able to improve cognitive functions in older adults with and without dementia.…”

The Effect of Cognitive Training with Neurofeedback on Cognitive Function in Healthy Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

“…In the typical CTNF, participants were asked to perform CT while maintaining greater brain activities. Several studies have reported that CTNF has a positive effect on cognitive functions [ 26 , 27 ]. For example, previous studies using NIRS reported that the CTNF showed greater beneficial effects on working memory, long-term memory, attention, and executive functions compared with CT alone in healthy adults [ 27 , 28 ].…”

“…Several studies have reported that CTNF has a positive effect on cognitive functions [ 26 , 27 ]. For example, previous studies using NIRS reported that the CTNF showed greater beneficial effects on working memory, long-term memory, attention, and executive functions compared with CT alone in healthy adults [ 27 , 28 ]. These studies suggest that CTNF has a more positive impact on cognitive function than single domain training (e.g., CT or neurofeedback alone).…”