Cognitive Processing of Traumas: The Role of Intrusive Thoughts and Reappraisals¹

Abstract

Cognitive processing theories of post‐traumatic adaptation (Horowitz, 1986a; Janoff‐Bulman, 1992) propose that repeated comparisons of trauma content with preexisting cognitive schemas result in trauma reappraisal or schematic revision. Thus, intrusive ruminations should facilitate cognitive integration and resolution of past traumas. However, research has shown that some survivors become stuck in endless, repetitive rumination cycles. This raises the issue of how to differentiate ruminations that promote cognitive integration from those that merely prolong or exacerbate psychological distress. Identifying substantive dimensions for categorizing cognitions about past traumas could enhance prediction of their effects on adjustment and inform clinical treatment interventions. This paper seeks to: (a) Assess the current state of theoretical knowledge concerning cognitive adaptation to trauma, (b) integrate theoretical postulates with empirical research findings, (c) define gaps or inconsistencies in our understanding of the cognitive adaptation process, and (d) identify foci for future theory and research.

Some Good News About Rumination: Task-Focused Thinking After Failure Facilitates Performance Improvement

“…The notion of cognitive processing is similar to rumination in that both involve the active exploration of thoughts and feelings associated with a trauma and its implications (Greenberg, 1995). Cognitive processing connects with both the action and state rumination types, in that it involves both a concentration on the process of what went wrong (action) and its consequences (state).…”

Social‐cognitive correlates of adjustment to prostate cancer

“…Lepore (2001) has theorized that patients' social environment can have a strong influence on their ability to cognitively process their cancer. Supportive others can help individuals work through their stressful memories and make sense of them (Greenberg, 1995). Discussing thoughts and feelings with others can provide an opportunity to confront the 'why me' questions and enable individuals to gain insight from others and construct meaning (Redd et al, 2001).…”

Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships.

“…Given the apparent role of rumination in perpetuating psychological distress following interpersonal stressors (Greenberg, 1995;Holman & Silver, 1996) and in promoting aggression following insults and selfesteem threats (Caprara, 1986;Collins & Bell, 1997), it would seem that rumination over intrusive thoughts, images, and affects related to the interpersonal offense would maintain peo-pie's distress regarding the offense and, quite possibly, maintain their motivations to avoid contact with and seek revenge against their offenders.…”

“…These studies and others indicate that people who experience--and are unable to dissipate--high degrees of residual, intrusive, negative feelings and images regarding interpersonal offenses are significantly more likely to commit acts of aggression against someone whom they perceived to have transgressed against them. Given the pervasiveness of ruminative processes , their pervasive effects (Greenberg, 1995), and their sensitivity to attachment-related differences in interpersonal relationships , it would not be surprising if this psychological system, along with the closeness-empathy system, played a causal role in shaping people's inclinations to forgive.…”