Cognitive Mapping Without Vision: Comparing Wayfinding Performance After Learning From Digital Touchscreen-Based Multimodal Maps vs. Embossed Tactile Overlays

Abstract

This article starts by discussing the state of the art in accessible interactive maps for use by blind and visually impaired (BVI) people. It then describes a behavioral experiment investigating the efficacy of a new type of low-cost, touchscreen-based multimodal interface, called a vibro-audio map (VAM), for supporting environmental learning, cognitive map development, and wayfinding behavior on the basis of nonvisual sensing. In the study, eight BVI participants learned two floor-maps of university buildings, one using the VAM and the other using an analogous hardcopy tactile map (HTM) overlaid on the touchscreen. They were asked to freely explore each map, with the task of learning the entire layout and finding three hidden target locations. After meeting a learning criterion, participants performed an environmental transfer test, where they were brought to the corresponding physical layout and were asked to plan/navigate routes between learned target locations from memory, i.e., without access to the map used at learning. The results using Bayesian analyses aimed at assessing equivalence showed highly similar target localization accuracy and route efficiency performance between conditions, suggesting that the VAM supports the same level of environmental learning, cognitive map development, and wayfinding performance as is possible from interactive displays using traditional tactile map overlays. These results demonstrate the efficacy of the VAM for supporting complex spatial tasks without vision using a commercially available, low-cost interface and open the door to a new era of mobile interactive maps for spatial learning and wayfinding by BVI navigators.

Tactile cartography in the digital age: A review and research agenda

“…Additionally, mapping platforms that also respond to audio input are becoming more feasible with improved speech recognition technology (Abd Hamid and Edwards, 2013;Barbosa and Sá, 2020;Cavazos Quero et al, 2019;Reinders et al, 2020). Mobile computing is also frequently enrolled in multimodal technologies, such as in Yatani et al (2012), Matsuo et al (2020), and Giudice et al (2020) who incorporate tactual, auditory, and vibration feedback in mobile wayfinding applications, or Senette et al (2013) who lay a microcapsule tactile map over a mobile device with an app installed that can recognize it. Kane et al (2013) discuss a similar set of experiments, except in their case, they use 3D-printed touchplates to guide users' fingers while using a touchpad.…”

“…Interactive tactile maps in general may improve the acquisition of spatial knowledge and general user satisfaction (Brock et al, 2015;Brule et al, 2016;Giudice et al, 2020) as well as improve performance with specific tasks such as wayfinding (Palivcová et al, 2020;Toyoda et al, 2020). 3D printed maps also provide a relatively affordable method for producing simple, custom interactive media (Giraud et al, 2017;Gual et al, 2014;Rener, 2017).…”

“…The authors also explain that tactile media can often only be operated in a relatively conspicuous manner, thereby alienating its users, especially in environments conventionally associated with visual experiences (Stangl et al, 2019) -placards that read 'Do not touch' are ubiquitous in museums, but none that say 'Do not look/hear/taste/smell' (obviously touching art poses more of a risk of damage than looking at art does, but nevertheless, certain people are excluded from experiencing the art as a result; see Shaligram, 2019 andRieger et al, 2019, for further discussion about museums and visual disability). Golledge (2005) and Giudice et al (2020) both explain that tactile maps or map devices are often cumbersome and not designed to be portable and ostensibly therefore requiring conspicuous operation in public (it is worth noting the 15year difference between these papers).…”

Multimodal Navigation Systems for Users with Visual Impairments—A Review and Analysis

“…The Vibro-Audio map (VAM) proposed by [79] supported environmental learning, cognitive map development and wayfinding behavior. VAM used a low-cost touchscreen-based multimodal interface of a commercial tablet.…”

Exploring the Spatial Distribution Characteristics and Correlation Factors of Wayfinding Performance on City-Scale Road Networks Based on Massive Trajectory Data

“…Ishikawa and Montello [12] and Al-Alwan and Al-Azzawi [13] explored the influence of repetition and familiarity on the level of wayfinding and spatial knowledge development from different angles based on hand sketching and questionnaires. Giudice et al [14] and Kim et al [15] focused on the effect of map presentation mode on pedestrian wayfinding. Giudice et al studied the influence of map presentation mode on the level of environmental learning, cognitive map development, and wayfinding performance with visual impairment through controlled experiments.…”