Cognitive Flexibility in the Context of Stress and Depressive Disorders

Abstract

Disturbances of cognitive flexibility may contribute to difficulties in emotion regulation, which can lead to the emergence of depressive illness. However, there are limited data available as to how stressful experiences influence cognitive flexibility. The purpose of the present research was to examine the contribution of different stressor experiences, including selfreported early-life trauma, on cognitive flexibility, and how disturbances in this regard were related to heightened depressive symptoms and to stress-reactivity. Given that the neutrophin brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) has been linked to mood, notably depression, the link between a BDNF polymorphism and cognitive flexibility was also examined. In Study 1 (N = 64), an acute psychosocial stressor (the Trier Social Stress Test; TSST) was accompanied by enhanced cognitive flexibility, as reflected through greater set-shifting performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST), and this relationship was mediated by heightened threat appraisal. However, the enhanced set-shifting performance was not apparent among individuals with elevated depressive symptoms. Study 2 (N = 239) demonstrated that, among Met allele carriers for the BDNF Val66Met gene polymorphism, greater frequency of traumatic events was associated with decreased cognitive flexibility (i.e., reduced set-shifting performance of the WCST), and these relations depended on type of trauma experienced and gender. In Studies 3A, B, and C, a cognitive flexibility questionnaire (CFQ) was developed which identified the ways in which cognitive flexibility might be manifested in stressful situations. The CFQ, which comprised two sub-scales (cognitive control and cognitive resources), exhibited high internal consistency, and was associated with depressive symptoms even after controlling for other measures that have been linked to depression. Finally, in Study 4 (N = 44), it was demonstrated that reduced cognitive flexibility, as assessed by the CFQ, was associated with negative affect iii and cortisol levels following the TSST. Collectively, the present findings indicate that the impact of stressful events on cognitive flexibility depends on the nature of the stressor as well as personal characteristics, including gender and genetic disposition. Moreover, the present research further supports the notion that disturbances in fundamental cognitive control processes, such as cognitive flexibility, might contribute to the maintenance of negative emotional states and neuroendocrine activation, and might contribute to the evolution of depressive illness.iv

From Risk to Resilience: How Lifestyle Factors Interact with Early-Life Trauma, Genetic Polymorphisms, and Stress, in Predicting Risk for Depression

“…This was somewhat surprising, given the abundance of past research indicating that diet may be predictive of cognition (e.g., Freeman, Haley-Zitlin, Rosenberger, & Granholm, 2014), coping (e.g., Kuczmarski et al, 2017), and depression (e.g., O'Neil et al, 2014). The present findings also revealed that both dimensions of cognitive flexibility (cognitive control and cognitive resources) were highly correlated, and that both dimensions were negatively associated with emotion-focused coping, typical and atypical depressive symptoms, and that only cognitive resources was positively correlated with problem-focused coping, which is in line with previous research (Gabrys, Anisman, & Matheson, 2018). In addition, persistent use of emotion-focused coping was related to both types of depression, and problem-focused coping was negatively related to typical depressive symptoms, which again corresponded with past research (e.g., Abdollahi et al, 2018;Matheson & Anisman, 2003;Whatley et al, 1998).…”

“…This positive relation between a non-prudent dietary pattern and emotion focused coping is in line with previous research (Kuczmarski et al, 2017). Again, given the possibility that the dietary pattern and genotype might produce excessive amounts of inflammation and impair cognitive flexibility, this impairment may also contribute to persistent use of emotionfocused coping strategies, as individuals who are less flexible in the use of their coping methods tend to endorse emotion-focused coping strategies to a greater degree (Gabrys, Anisman, & Matheson, 2018).…”

“…A subtype of this disorder, atypical depression, is of particular interest to the present investigation as it is marked by changes in food intake (as well as increased weight and sleep) together with the more common features of depression, such as anhedonia and poor mood. In addition to depressive symptoms, dietary pattern was also related to coping selection and cognitive processes that underlie coping flexibility, which are often impaired among individuals who are depressed (Gabrys, Tabri, Anisman, & Matheson, 2018).…”