Cognitive and Sensorimotor Functions in 6-Year-Old Children in Relation to Lead and Mercury Levels

Walkowiak, Jens; Altmann, L; Krämer, Ursula; Sveinsson, Karolina; Turfeld, Martina; Weishoff-Houben, Michaela; Winneke, Gerhard

doi:10.1016/s0892-0362(98)00010-5

Cited by 92 publications

(53 citation statements)

References 14 publications

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“…Such a fall in average IQ is consistent with several meta-analyses and reviews of childhood lead studies (Fulton et al, 1987;Lanphear et al, 2005;Needleman, 1990;Pocock et al, 1994;Schwartz, 1994). Several independent investigators also have concluded that BLLs below 10 μg/dL are harmful (Chiodo et al, 2004;Fulton et al, 1987;Landrigan, 2000;Schwartz, 1994;Schwartz and Otto, 1991;Selevan et al, 2003;Walkowiak et al, 1998;Wasserman et al, 2000). These studies, as well as the meta-analyses confirm that a threshold for the adverse health effects of lead exposure cannot be calculated.…”

Section: Health Effects Of Lead Below 10 μG/dlsupporting

confidence: 83%

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A rationale for lowering the blood lead action level from 10 to 2μg/dL

Gilbert¹,

2006

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Fifteen years ago, in 1991, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) established 10 μg/dL as the lowest level of concern for children's blood lead levels. This value is extremely important because, historically, policy makers and public health officials generally have acted to remove sources of lead exposure only after the CDC's level of concern had been exceeded. A growing body of evidence, however, reveals that blood lead levels below 10 μg/dL may impair neurobehavioral development. There is now sufficient and compelling scientific evidence for the CDC to lower the blood lead action level in children. This review argues that a level of 2 μg/dL is a useful and feasible replacement. Although it can be argued, in turn, that no threshold for the health effects of lead is demonstrable, analytically a blood level of 2 μg/dL is readily and accurately measured and provides a benchmark for successful prevention. Lowering the level of concern would encourage and accelerate the investments needed to ensure that children are protected from lead exposure in their homes, schools, and play settings. Such a program would also offer economic advantages because of the coupling between lead, educational attainment, earnings and anti-social conduct. By lowering the blood action level, CDC will promote policies and initiatives designed to further reduce children's exposure to this potent developmental neurotoxicant.

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Section: Health Effects Of Lead Below 10 μG/dlsupporting

confidence: 83%

“…During the last 15 years, this trend has continued. Numerous studies have repeatedly demonstrated adverse neurodevelopmental effects, such as lowered IQ, at BLLs below 10 μg/dL (Canfield et al, 2003;Fulton et al, 1987;Lanphear et al, 2000Lanphear et al, , 2005Walkowiak et al, 1998).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

A rationale for lowering the blood lead action level from 10 to 2μg/dL

Gilbert¹,

2006

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“…Moreover, Pb has behavioral consequences similar to those reported for stress, including an inverse association with IQ scores in prospective epidemiologic studies (Bellinger et al 1987;Canfield et al 2003), deficits in attentional processes (Bellinger et al 1994;Walkowiak et al 1998), and higher rates of early high school dropout and juvenile delinquency and criminality (Bradley and Corwyn 2002;Needleman et al 1996).…”

mentioning

confidence: 77%

Maternal stress modulates the effects of developmental lead exposure.

Cory‐Slechta

Virgolini

Thiruchelvam

et al. 2004

Environ Health Perspect

161

145

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Lead exposure is higher among children with low socioeconomic status (SES) compared with other children in the United States. Low SES itself is a known risk factor for various diseases and dysfunctions, effects that have been ascribed to chronic stress and associated elevation of glucocorticoids. Chronically elevated glucocorticoids and Pb provoke similar behavioral changes, and both can act on mesocorticolimbic systems of the brain. In this study we examined the hypothesis that these co-occurring risk factors, Pb and environmental stress, would interact and modulate each others' effects. Using a rodent model, we focused on the specific contributions of maternal stress (restraint) and maternal Pb exposure (150 ppm in drinking water) on corticosterone levels of offspring, as well as on neurotransmitter changes and a behavioral baseline (fixed-interval schedulecontrolled performance) with known sensitivities to Pb. We observed interactions of Pb and stress that differed in relation to outcome measure and sex. In addition, potentiated effects (effects of Pb plus stress but showing no changes produced by either alone) were observed more frequently in females. Importantly, Pb alone (in males) and Pb plus stress (in females) permanently elevated corticosterone levels in offspring; even short-term Pb exposure to dams could cause this effect. Such increases could suggest a potential new mechanism by which Pb exposure could directly or indirectly enhance susceptibility to diseases and dysfunctions and induce cognitive deficits. Moreover, the interactive effects of Pb and stress, and particularly the potentiated effects of Pb plus stress, raise questions about whether current risk assessment strategies sufficiently consider the potential for modulation of toxicity that can accrue from intercurrent risk factors.

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“…In a study conducted on 6 -year-old children in 1991, Walkowiak et al (1998 ) obtained urine mercury values of 0.16 g/ l ( GM ). Arithmetic means found by Schulte et al ( 1994 ) in 3 -to 15 -year-olds without amalgam fillings were 0.17 g/ l urine and 0.19 g /g creatinine, which corresponds to the levels of mercury in urine of the present study.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Mercury concentrations in urine, scalp hair, and saliva in children from Germany

Pesch

Wilhelm

Rostek

et al. 2002

J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol

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Mercury levels measured in urine, hair, and saliva of 245 German children ( 8 -10 years old ) are reported. Mercury concentrations in urine ranged between < 0.1 and 5.3 g / l [ geometric mean ( GM ) 0.26 g / l or 0.25 g / g creatinine; median for both, 0.22 in g / l and g / g, respectively ]. Using multiple linear regression analysis, two predictors have been found accounting for 25.3% of the variance of mercury levels in urine: the number of teeth with amalgam fillings ( 23.2% ) and the number of defective amalgam fillings ( 2.1% ). The mercury content in hair ranged from < 0.06 to 1.7 g / g ( GM 0.18 g / g; median 0.18 g / g ). The frequency of fish consumption, the smoking habits of the parents, and the age of the children accounted for 20.4% of the variance of mercury levels in hair. The correlation between the hair mercury content and urine mercury concentration was low ( r = 0.297 ). Mercury levels in saliva ranged between < 0.32 and 4.5 g / l ( median 0.16 g / l ). The mercury concentration in saliva was below the limit of quantification of 0.32 g / l in more than 70% of the samples. Mercury analysis in urine is suitable to estimate mercury exposure due to amalgam fillings, whereas hair mercury better reflects mercury intake by fish consumption. Up to now, saliva does not seem to be a suitable tool to monitor the mercury burden, at least not at low exposure levels.

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Cognitive and Sensorimotor Functions in 6-Year-Old Children in Relation to Lead and Mercury Levels

Cited by 92 publications

References 14 publications

A rationale for lowering the blood lead action level from 10 to 2μg/dL

A rationale for lowering the blood lead action level from 10 to 2μg/dL

Maternal stress modulates the effects of developmental lead exposure.

Mercury concentrations in urine, scalp hair, and saliva in children from Germany

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