Coercion and Resistance in the Colonial Market: Cotton in Britain’s African Empire

Exploring the factors causing the poor performance of most irrigation schemes in post-independence sub-Saharan Africa

“…Gezira's farmers were subjected to a rigid production system, which dictated crop rotations, inputs and sales (Ertsen, 2006;Robins, 2013). Before colonization, farmers were mainly pastoralists (sheep) but also grew a few crops, such as short-staple cotton and cereal, in a mixed production and labour allocation system.…”

“…Illustrating these pressures, exports to France increased sixfold between 1871 and 1934, and exports to Britain increased eight-fold between 1887 and 1937 ( Figure 2). The focus on export production at the expense of local food security resulted in endemic malnutrition in both West and East Africa during the 1920s and 1930s (Robins, 2013;Worboys, 1988). To increase productivity, colonial administrations invested in research, including rice research in Sierra Leone in 1934 (Richards, 1986) and the British campaign in the 1920s to introduce maize into eastern Africa (Forshey, 2008).…”

“…Western Africa, the Sahel low-rainfall region (e.g. Senegal and Gambia) and the rainforest region (Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia, and Nigeria) (Bos et al, 2006;Carney, 1996;National Research Council, 1996;Linares, 2002;Pelissier, 1966) Eastern Africa (Spalding et al, 1997) Inland ricegrowing areas Inland floodplains Rice varieties Niger Inland Delta, (Carney, 1996;Linares, 1981) Runoff from highlands Flood diversion Millet and wheat Somalia, Eritrea, Sudan and Ethiopia (Sandford, 2013) Northern Kenya (Muthigani, 2008) Cameron (FAO, 2016) South Africa, 1800s (Bernal, 1997) Tokar scheme, 1900s Dam and river diversion (tenant) scheme, 33,500 ha Cotton, sugar Sudan (UK) (Bashier, 2014) Gash scheme, 1920s Dam and river diversion (tenant) scheme, 105,000 ha Cotton, rice Sudan (UK) (Bashier, 2014) Office du Niger scheme, 1930s Dam and river diversion (tenant) scheme, 60,000 ha Cotton, sugar Mali (Ertsen, 2006;Robins, 2013;Van Beusekom, 1989, 2000 Kenya (Dubb et al, 2017) Triangle and Hippo Valley (Dubb et al, 2017) Northern Tanzania, (Dubb et al, 2017) Farmer-managed Sierra Leone Scarcies polder rice irrigation scheme Rice Richards (1986) Nigeria Village irrigation schemes, 40-200 ha; digging of wells, 1905…”