Coal Liquefaction

Abstract

The article contains sections titled: 1. Introduction 1.1. Commercial Development 1.2. Historical Background 2. Indirect Coal Liquefaction 2.1. Preparation of Synthesis Gas 2.1.1. Coal Gasification 2.1.2. Water–Gas Shift 2.1.3. Synthesis Gas Purification 2.2. Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis 2.2.1. Mechanisms 2.2.2. Product Selectivity and Characteristics 2.2.3. Catalytic Selectivity 2.2.4. Refining of Crude Products 2.2.5. Integrated Plant Configurations 2.2.6. Commercial Practice at SASOL 2.2.7. New and Developing Technologies 2.2.8. Advanced Systems 2.3. Methanol and Methanol to Gasoline (MTG) 2.4. Dimethyl Ether (DME) 2.5. Environmental Protection 2.6. Economic Aspects 3. Direct Coal Liquefaction 3.1. Mechanisms 3.2. Liquefaction Products 3.3. Solvents 3.3.1. Hydrogen Donors 3.3.2. Coal Conversion and Hydrogen Transfer 3.3.3. Interactive Solvent Effects 3.3.4. Side Reactions of Solvents 3.4. Coal Composition 3.4.1. Coal Rank 3.4.2. Bituminous Coal 3.4.3. Low‐Rank Coal 3.4.4. Coal Drying and Oxidation 3.5. Gaseous Hydrogen 3.6. Liquefaction in COH 2 O and COH 2 H 2 O 3.7. Catalysis 3.7.1. Mechanisms 3.7.2. Disposable Catalysts 3.7.3. Supported Catalysts 3.7.4. Molten Halide Catalysts 3.8. Process Description 3.9. Commercial Processes 3.9.1. Kohleoel (Ruhrkohle‐Veba Oel) Process 3.9.2. NEDOL Process 3.9.3. Solvent‐Refined Coal (SRC‐I and SRC‐II) Processes 3.9.4. Exxon Donor Solvent Process 3.9.5. H‐Coal Process 3.9.6. Catalytic Two‐Stage Process 3.9.7. HTI Coal Process 3.9.8. BCL Process 3.9.9. Liquefaction Solvent Extraction Process 3.10. Environmental Considerations 3.11. Economic Aspects

Harnessing the Power of the Water‐Gas Shift Reaction for Organic Synthesis

“…Thed eoxygenation of epoxides to the corresponding alkenes under WGSR conditions has been known since 1968, when Watanabe et al reported the reduction of styrene oxide with K 2 Fe(CO) 4 . [140] However, the development of synthetically useful reduction protocols occurred only in the last decade with the advent of nanoparticle catalysts.H ydrotalcite-supported silver [141] and gold, [142] as well as titaniasupported gold nanoparticles, [143] are efficient promoters of the reduction of av ariety of epoxides ( Figure 11).…”

“…Also, it is used to tune the H 2 /CO ratio in the production of methanol [3] and in the Fischer–Tropsch process for the synthesis of hydrocarbons. [4] …”

“…Also,i ti s used to tune the H 2 /CO ratio in the production of methanol [3] and in the Fischer-Tropsch process for the synthesis of hydrocarbons. [4] TheW GSR is not limited to industrial applications,b ut has also been used sporadically in organic synthesis as amethod to carry out reductive processes.Inthese instances, H 2 is not ad irect product of the reaction, but rather, the reductive potential of the WGSR is channeled toward the reduction of organic substrates,o re xploited to insure turnover of catalytic cycles.T he hydroformylation reaction is an excellent example to illustrate this concept. In its original incarnation, the hydroformylation reaction converts terminal alkenes into homologous aldehydes utilizing amixture of CO and H 2 over aC oo rR hc atalyst [Eq.…”

Catalytic Nucleophilic Allylation Driven by the Water–Gas Shift Reaction

“…Furthermore, the Fischer – Tropsch process for producing hydrocarbons and the production of methanol from synthesis gas are industrial applications of the WGSR. 15,16 …”

Die Wassergas‐Shift‐Reaktion in der organischen Synthese

“…Außerdem wird die WGSR zur Einstellung des H 2 /CO-Verhältnisses in der Methanolherstellung [3] und in der Fischer-Tropsch-Synthese von Kohlenwasserstoffen genutzt. [4] Die WGSR ist nicht auf industrielle Anwendungen beschränkt, vereinzelt wurde sie auch in der organischen Synthese als Methode zur Durchführung reduktiver Prozesse genutzt. Hierbei ist H 2 kein direktes Produkt der Reaktion, vielmehr wird das reduktive Potenzial der WGSR auf die Reduktion der organischen Substrate gelenkt oder zur Gewährleistung des Umsatzes der Katalysezyklen genutzt.…”