Closing the Happiness Gap: The Decline of Gendered Parenthood Norms and the Increase in Parental Life Satisfaction

Abstract

In recent decades, normative expectations for parenthood have changed for both men and women, fertility has declined, and work–family arrangements have become more egalitarian. Previous studies indicate that the transition to parenthood and work–family arrangements both influence life satisfaction and do so differently for men and women. Drawing on constructivism and utility maximization, we theorize how gendered parenthood norms influence life satisfaction after the transition to parenthood, and how decisions regarding motherhood and fatherhood are made in order to maximize life satisfaction. We hypothesize that the rise of gender-egalitarian patterns has contributed to closing the parental happiness gap, and that the effects of motherhood and fatherhood on life satisfaction have converged. We test these assumptions by drawing on data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (1984-2015) and applying a series of hybrid panel regressions to estimate motherhood and fatherhood effects on life satisfaction in Western Germany over the last three decades. We then trace trends in these effects back to changing parenthood norms. The results indicate that the implications of parenthood have converged for men and women. As support for a gendered division of labor has lost ground, the transition to parenthood has become increasingly conducive to life satisfaction for both genders, and the parental happiness gap has vanished.

Parenthood and Life Satisfaction in Stratified Labor Market: Evidence From Korea

“…The higher the number of children, the greater the effect of employment stability on life satisfaction for men compared with women. Preisner et al ( 27 ) showed that the parenthood happiness gap between men and women decreased with the decline in gendered parenthood norms. However, this study verifies that Korea's stratified labor market characteristics affect parental life satisfaction.…”

Differential Trajectories of Fathers’ Postpartum Depressed Mood: A Latent Class Growth Analysis Approach

“…In our study, the only predictor of the patterns of the depressed mood trajectory for the fathers was the subjective judgment that their current financial situation was not sufficient to pay for the family living expenses. A study tracing the socio-economic panel data in Germany from 1984 to 2015 found that the weakening of gendered parenthood norms has contributed to overall life satisfaction in fathers and mothers [15]. Gender norms continue to play an essential role between parenthood and men's and women's psychological well-being.…”

“…Parents in different countries may perceive the burden and stress caused by the cultural norms and expectations toward parenthood. Gendered parenthood norms contribute to the differences in psychological well-being among fathers and mothers in different societies [15]. For instance, a study conducted in Jordan suggested that first-time fathers' postpartum experiences are influenced by cultural beliefs of masculinity that inhibit their involvement in caring for their spouses and babies, as well as their expression of psychological distress [16].…”

Sketching Motherhood. Maternal Representation in Contemporary Picturebooks: The Case of Spain

“…Thanks to new social regulations that promote work-life balance and reduce social and economic pressures, as well as the availability of more egalitarian ways of parenting, the degree of women's satisfaction after becoming mothers has apparently increased (Preisner et al, 2020). Still, mothers often feel overburdened and penalized by the demands of combining work and family (Molina & Montuenga, 2009), making them experience ambivalent emotions caused by gender archetypes and expectations (Almond, 2011).…”