Closed-Loop Frontal Midlineθ Neurofeedback: A Novel Approach for Training Focused-Attention Meditation

Abstract

Cortical oscillations serve as an index of both sensory and cognitive processes and represent one of the most promising candidates for training and targeting the top-down mechanisms underlying executive functions. Research findings suggest that theta (θ) oscillations (3–7 Hz) recorded over frontal-midline electrodes are broadly associated with a number of higher-order cognitive processes and may serve as the mechanistic backbone for cognitive control. Frontal-midline theta (FMθ) oscillations have also been shown to inversely correlate with activity in the default mode network (DMN), a network in the brain linked to spontaneous thought processes such as mind-wandering and rumination. In line with these findings, we previously observed increased FMθ oscillations in expert meditation practitioners during reported periods of focused-attention meditation practice when compared to periods of mind-wandering. In an effort to narrow the explanatory gap by directly connecting observed neurophysiological activity in the brain to the phenomenological nature of reported experience, we designed a methodologically novel and adaptive neurofeedback protocol with the aim of modulating FMθ while having meditation novice participants implement breath-focus strategies derived from focused-attention mediation practices. Participants who received eight sessions of the adaptive FMθ-meditation neurofeedback protocol were able to significantly modulate FMθ over frontal electrodes using focused-attention meditation strategies relative to their baseline by the end of the training and demonstrated significantly faster reaction times on correct trials during the n-back working memory task assessed before and after the FMθ-meditation neurofeedback protocol. No significant differences in frontal theta activity or behavior were observed in the active control participants who received age and gender matched sham neurofeedback. These findings help lay the groundwork for the development of brain training protocols and neurofeedback applications that aim to train features of the mental states and traits associated with focused-attention meditation.

Neuromeditation: The Science and Practice of Combining Neurofeedback and Meditation for Improved Mental Health

“…Several studies have found a correlation between increased FM Theta and focused attention meditation practices [26,27]. Results showed that the experimental group was not only able to significantly increase FM Theta, but also improved performance on a working memory task [21].…”

“…Beta waves (12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30) are fast waves and associated with activation and arousal. When beta increases, it is likely that the person is engaged in thinking, planning, worrying, or some other active state.…”

“…More recently, eight sessions of neurofeedback-enhanced meditation were compared to a control group that received sham neurofeedback [21]. Rather than focusing on the PCC, these researchers rewarded increases of frontal midline theta brainwaves (FM Theta).…”

“…Because both meditation and neurofeedback have independently been found to be effective in the treatment of a variety of mental health concerns, it is logical to combine them to target specific outcomes [3,5]. For example, in the study cited above subjects receiving eight sessions of focus neuromeditation significantly improved their performance on a working memory task, while the control group did not [21]. These outcomes make sense given that regions of the brain involved in working memory are exercised during Focus meditation practices.…”

Design of a Neurofeedback Training System for Meditation Based on EEG Technology

“…However, some recent studies found that the benefits from neurofeedback greatly differ between subjects, and in some particular cases neurofeedback does not appear to provide an advantage over meditating on one's own [28,29]. That is why authors [30][31][32][33] suggested the use of personalized neurofeedback as a potential way to reduce the inefficacy problem and some other considerations have been shared for the design of a neurofeedback training system.…”