Clinical Features and Risk Factors of Parkinson’s Disease in a Population of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan: A Case-Control Study

Abstract

Background: Parkinson’s disease (PD) is one of the most common neurological disorders that mostly affect aged individuals. The common symptoms of PD are rest tremor, bradykinesia, and rigidity. Objectives: The present study was devised to find out the clinical features and risk factors associated with PD in a population of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Methods:A total of 600 PD patients and 1,200 control individuals took part in this study. The participants filled out a standard questionnaire. Results: This study found a significant association between PD and exposure to pesticides (p < 0.0001) and doing work on farms (p < 0.0001). The use of aldrin was significantly associated with PD (p < 0.0001). Furthermore, we also found that PD status was associated with individuals who have a history of depression, hypertension, head injury, and Alzheimer’s disease. This study also showed that the PD rate was lower in those who were using tobacco products. Conclusion: In this case-control study, we revealed some environmental and medical conditions that are linked with PD. To control the disease, we must minimize exposure to pesticides, and the government and scientific community should play their role.

Risk Factors for Brain Health in Agricultural Work: A Systematic Review

“…This risk was especially high among women [ 21 ]. Similar associations between agricultural work and Parkinson’s disease have been reported in samples from China [ 50 ], Norway [ 62 ], Africa [ 48 ], Italy [ 60 ], Pakistan [ 63 ], and the US [ 65 ]. Notably, a study from Africa found a link between agricultural work and Parkinson’s disease even after controlling for age, sex, family history of Parkinson’s disease, head trauma, and smokeless tobacco (snuff) use [ 48 ].…”

“…However, four separate studies in France found higher incidences of Parkinson’s disease among farmers as well as agricultural workers more broadly defined [ 21 , 50 , 53 , 63 ]. This risk was especially high among women [ 21 ].…”

Prediction of Parkinson’s Disease Risk Based on Genetic Profile and Established Risk Factors

“…Through this study, we assessed some risk factors that were previously reported to be associated with the development of PD and we found that age, head injury, family history, and depression were positively associated with PD, while BMI was inversely associated with the disease (Table 3 and Table S2). Interestingly, these results are consistent with the results of previous studies (head injury (OR:1.55; 95% CI:1.33-1.81)) [21]; family history (RR:4.45; 95% CI:3.39-5.83) [22]; depression (OR:15.1; 95% CI:5.64-40.78) [8]). In addition, Chen et al [23] in a meta-analysis study suggested that being overweight may decrease the risk of developing PD.…”

“…In addition, previous studies reported that environmental, including lifestyle, factors may also play a role in the development of the disease. Environmental factors, such as diet (e.g., dairy products, soft drinks, and red meat consumption), depression, exposure to pesticides, rural living and head injury were positively associated with PD, whereas smoking, alcohol, coffee consumption, and physical activity were inversely associated with the disease [3,[6][7][8].…”

Scanning Imaging Study of Patients with Parkinson’s Disease Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction Based on Linear Equation

“…Among them, gastrointestinal dysfunction, cardiovascular dysfunction, skin lesions, and urination disorders are all autonomic nerve dysfunction. Studies have shown that the cause of urinary disturbance and sleep disturbance may be related to brainstem lesions in the early stage of the disease [ 19 ]. As can be seen from Figure 4 , the score of the PD-UD group decreased more significantly than that of the PD-NUD group within 9 months, and linear regression analysis also showed dysuria (regression coefficient -0.21, 95% CI -0.87~0.22, P = 0.043), the research conclusions were inconsistent (regression coefficient -0.34, 95% CI -0.92~0.24, P = 0.251), and there was no statistical difference between the two.…”