Classifying Work in the New Economy

Abstract

Alternatives to the archetypal model of full-time regular employment are now both prevalent and wide-ranging. Over a fifth of U.S. workers, and even more globally, now perform economic work under arrangements that differ from full-time regular employment. Yet most of our management and social science notions about economic work are based on the full-time employment model. We know relatively little about the operation and consequences of alternative arrangements in part because while these arrangements vary considerably, they are commonly grouped together for research purposes using existing classification systems. We outline an inclusive classification system that distinguishes clearly between employment and its alternatives. It also distinguishes among the alternatives themselves by grouping work arrangements into categories that share common properties and that are distinct from each other in ways that matter for practice and for research. The classification system is based on distinctions about the sources and extent of control over the work process, the contractual nature of the work relationship, and the parties involved in the work relationship. Our classification system is both informed by and reflects the legal distinctions among these categories. We explore implications of our system for research and theory development.

Green Process Innovation and Innovation Benefit: The Mediating Effect of Firm Image

“…As far as personnel training is considered, empirical literature confirms that the more proactive the green innovators, the higher the share of trained employees [32]. Anecdotal evidence is also provided that a formalized environmental management system which is often utilized by a proactive process innovator has significant effects on employees' morale [49]. Case studies also show that firms with a good environmental performance can attract qualified staff easily [23].…”

“…This reactive adaption will lead to disorders in these firms' daily operation [48]. Contrary to the reactive firms, proactive innovators can avoid time-compression diseconomies [22,49] because their environmental performance always exceeds the regulation standard. Due to the earlier practices, they also have an advantage in setting industry clean production technology standards.…”

Human resource management practices and voluntary turnover: a study of internal workforce and external labor market contingencies

“…In the HR and SHRM literatures, researchers have tacitly treated temporary workers, PT employees, and FT employees as a homogeneous group (Cappelli and Keller, 2012). However, workers in different employment arrangements likely differ in the psychological contract expectations of their employer and in how they view their employment relationship (e.g., Gakovic and Tetrick, 2003).…”

Liminality at Work : Mobile Project Workers In-Between

“…Another strategy to increase flexibility and access knowledge refers to the temporary leasing of external workers (Ashford et al, 2007;Cappelli, 1999b;Cappelli & Keller, 2013;Kalleberg, 2001;Kalleberg, 2009). This strategy has variously been denoted as "external flexibility", "numerical flexibility", "market flexibility", and "job-focused employment relations" (Kalleberg, 2001).…”

“…Although there is a wide range of different nonstandard work arrangements, they have often been lumped together into categories like "nonstandard work" or "contingent work", often followed by the assumption that these are "bad" jobs in comparison with "good" traditional employment (Ashford et al, 2007;Cappelli & Keller, 2013). Cappelli and Keller (2013) challenged these broad previous categorizations and provided a distinction between different types of nonstandard work arrangements, differentiating between the four distinct categories: (1) direct part-time employment, (2) coemployment between agency, client and worker, (3) direct contracting between a selfemployed worker and client, and (4) sub-contracting which involves vendor, client organization and self-employed worker.…”