Circumcision: History, Religion and Law

Abstract

The aim of this article is to describe the circumcision procedure during history, its therapeutic and preventive goals, with focus on bioethical, economic and law issues. The origins of this practice are lost in antiquity. It was performed since 3000 BC by the Egyptians for hygienic and religious reasons. Moreover, male circumcision is a religious commandment in Judaism and Islam, and it is customary in some Oriental Orthodox and other Christian churches of Africa. Nowadays, circumcision is performed as a routine procedure by the Jews and the Muslims for religious reasons. The world prevalence of men with circumcision is 12.5-33%, especially in USA, Canada, Islamic people and Africa; in Europe the prevalence rate is low (in Great Britain it is 1.5%). Currently, male circumcision is being highly debated because of ethical, law and scientific issues and the different roles of this procedure: therapeutic, prophylactic (but there is no universal consensus) and ritualistic role. Nowadays, in Italy there is a strong debate about the consensus for this practice and its indications. The Italian law does not allow performing ritualistic circumcision, as a free of charge procedure in public hospitals, at the government's expenses, because the Italian law must protect different religious cultures, in name of the laity of the State. Thus, national bioethical committee (CNB) has established that ritualistic circumcision may only be performed on a paying basis in public hospitals. As a protective practice, circumcision has decreased in the entire world because of the improvement of hygienical conditions and, above all, the lack of unanimous consent on the real usefulness of protective circumcision, even if several studies have recently demonstrated the protecting role of male circumcision against HIV infection.

Comparison of the Late Complications of Circumcision in Different Age Groups

“…About 60% of male neonates were circumcised in the United States in 1992. Furthermore, according to male birth records in Iran, about 500000 neonatal circumcisions were performed in 2011 (5)(6)(7). Although this procedure is usually performed on neonates and children for religious rituals and cultural reasons, however, in other cases, especially in adults, it may be done for both therapeutic and prophylactic purposes such as as phimosis, refractory balanoposthitis, and chronic urinary tract infections (UTIs) (8).…”

State of the Globe: The relationship between male circumcision and genitourinary infections

“…The word ‘circumcision’ comes from the Latin circumcidere (meaning ‘to cut around’). [1] Driven by religious, cultural, social, secular, or health-related motives, male circumcision is commonly performed during adolescence or even during infancy. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), global estimates suggest that 30% of males are circumcised, of whom almost two-thirds are Muslims.…”

“…According to the World Health Organization (WHO), global estimates suggest that 30% of males are circumcised, of whom almost two-thirds are Muslims. [12] It is possibly the most common surgical procedure performed in the world. It is a religious commandment in Islam, where male circumcision is widely practiced[3] Moreover, it is customary in some Oriental, Orthodox, and other Christian churches of Africa and a routine procedure among the Jews.…”

“…It is a religious commandment in Islam, where male circumcision is widely practiced[3] Moreover, it is customary in some Oriental, Orthodox, and other Christian churches of Africa and a routine procedure among the Jews. [13]…”

“…Circumcision has been suggested as an effective method of maintaining penile hygiene from the time of the Egyptian Pharaohs. [1] What remains unclear is the particular association of the penile microbiological environment on the one hand and reproductive tract infection (RTI) and urinary tract infection (UTI) on the other. This is in clear distinction to the situation in females, where there have been extensive investigations into vaginal microflora and their potential to cause RTI and UTI.…”