Ciguatera Fish Poisoning in the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean: Reconciling the Multiplicity of Ciguatoxins and Analytical Chemistry Approach for Public Health Safety

Abstract

Ciguatera is a major circumtropical poisoning caused by the consumption of marine fish and invertebrates contaminated with ciguatoxins (CTXs): neurotoxins produced by endemic and benthic dinoflagellates which are biotransformed in the fish food-web. We provide a history of ciguatera research conducted over the past 70 years on ciguatoxins from the Pacific Ocean (P-CTXs) and Caribbean Sea (C-CTXs) and describe their main chemical, biochemical, and toxicological properties. Currently, there is no official method for the extraction and quantification of ciguatoxins, regardless their origin, mainly due to limited CTX-certified reference materials. In this review, the extraction and purification procedures of C-CTXs are investigated, considering specific objectives such as isolating reference materials, analysing fish toxin profiles, or ensuring food safety control. Certain in vitro assays may provide sufficient sensitivity to detect C-CTXs at sub-ppb levels in fish, but they do not allow for individual identification of CTXs. Recent advances in analysis using liquid chromatography coupled with low- or high-resolution mass spectrometry provide new opportunities to identify known C-CTXs, to gain structural insights into new analogues, and to quantify C-CTXs. Together, these methods reveal that ciguatera arises from a multiplicity of CTXs, although one major form (C-CTX-1) seems to dominate. However, questions arise regarding the abundance and instability of certain C-CTXs, which are further complicated by the wide array of CTX-producing dinoflagellates and fish vectors. Further research is needed to assess the toxic potential of the new C-CTX and their role in ciguatera fish poisoning. With the identification of C-CTXs in the coastal USA and Eastern Atlantic Ocean, the investigation of ciguatera fish poisoning is now a truly global effort.

Recent Advances in the Detection of Food Toxins Using Mass Spectrometry

“…Neurological and toxicity symptoms of NST are paralysis, seizures, paresthesia, and coma, while gastrointestinal ailments are represented by nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, cramps, and bronchoconstriction, and extreme poisoning may also lead to death . Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFT) is one of the most common foodborne illnesses caused by marine biotoxin of ciguatoxin. , Ciguatoxins are toxic and lipid-soluble compounds found in marine organisms. Gambiertoxins, the precursor toxins, are produced by benthic dinoflagellates of Gambierdiscus genus.…”

“… 161 Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFT) is one of the most common foodborne illnesses caused by marine biotoxin of ciguatoxin. 173 , 174 Ciguatoxins are toxic and lipid-soluble compounds found in marine organisms. Gambiertoxins, the precursor toxins, are produced by benthic dinoflagellates of Gambierdiscus genus.…”

Tissue Distribution and Metabolization of Ciguatoxins in an Herbivorous Fish following Experimental Dietary Exposure to Gambierdiscus polynesiensis

“…A study feeding omnivorous pinfish with toxic flesh of fieldcollected barracuda found that pinfish retained 43% of consumed C-CTX1 over 20 days [59]. Although they are known to have similar backbone structures, it is unknown how the toxicokinetics may vary among the well-characterized Pacific CTXs and the much lesser known Caribbean CTXs [87]. Additionally, the toxin CTX profile of carnivorous fish contains metabolized and generally more oxidized congeners than that of Gambierdiscus [20,39], which may be assimilated at different efficiencies.…”

A 15-Year Retrospective Review of Ciguatera in the Madeira Islands (North-East Atlantic, Portugal)

“…Finally, advances are needed in screening methods for the fast detection of toxicity in seafood as well as sensitive and selective targeted analytical methods for the accurate determination of Caribbean ciguatoxin contents [68]. The development of biosensors for the detection of toxic Gambierdiscus and/or Fukuyoa dinoflagellate species and toxic fish specimens is of high value for remote islands, such as the Selvagens Islands.…”