Cigarette smoking and age of menopause: A large prospective study

Dynamics of the Ovarian Reserve and Impact of Genetic and Epidemiological Factors on Age of Menopause1

“…Cigarette smoking is the most established and consistently observed risk factor for younger age at menopause, with estimates of impact on the order of about one year [95][96][97] with a clear dose-response association [89,98,99]. Supporting these findings, recent work found current smokers had lower AMH levels than non-smokers [100] and AMH was lower and declined more steeply in smokers beginning 13 years before the final menstrual period [101].…”

Cigarette smoking and risk of hip fracture in women: A meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies

“…Several mechanisms may be responsible for the harmful effect of hip fracture. Smoking is associated with lower body mass [40], earlier onset of menopause [8], aggravation of oxidative stress [41], and a more unhealthy and sedentary lifestyle. The effect of smoking on bone mineral density (BMD) and fractures may be resulted from changes of serum estradiol levels [9], serum parathyroid level [11] and serum vitamin D level [12], consequently affecting gastrointestinal calcium absorption and bone cells proliferation [42], and thus exerting an inhibitory effect on BMD and bone metabolism.…”

Menopause: Cross-Cultural Considerations

“…Hayatbakhsha et al [ 11 ] also report that women who quit smoking have a lower chance of early onset menopause than current smokers. In a systemic review of studies on this topic, in 2008, the evidence of this association is not clear in terms of the duration of smoking and the quantity of cigarettes smoked [ 14 ].…”