Chlorination for International Disasters

Reiff, Fred M.

doi:10.2175/193864702785033914

Cited by 3 publications

(2 citation statements)

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“…Chlorination is the most widely used method for water treatment in humanitarian emergencies because of its simplicity, low cost, and importantly, the residual protection it provides. In refugee and internally displaced persons (IDP) camps in humanitarian crisis zones, centralized batch chlorination remains the primary approach to treating large quantities of water, while point-of-use (e.g., household) and point-of-distribution (e.g., chlorine dispensers) approaches are also utilized in specific niche roles [1][2][3][4][5]. A number of chlorine products are commonly utilized in humanitarian response including calcium hypochlorite powders (e.g., high-test hypochlorite, HTH), sodium hypochlorite solutions (e.g., bleach), as well as tablets composed of various chlorine compounds such as sodium dichloroisocyanurate (NaDCC) or chlorine dioxide.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Characterization of Disinfection By-Products Levels at an Emergency Surface Water Treatment Plant in a Refugee Settlement in Northern Uganda

Ali

Arnold

Liesner

et al. 2019

Water

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The reliance on chlorination in humanitarian operations has raised concerns among practitioners about possible health risks associated with disinfection by-products; however, to date, there has not been an evaluation of disinfection by-product (DBP) levels in an emergency water supply intervention. This study aimed to investigate DBP levels at a surface-water treatment plant serving a refugee settlement in northern Uganda using the colorimetric Hach THM Plus Method. The plant had two treatment processes: (1) Simultaneous clarification–chlorination (“rapid treatment”); and (2) pre-clarification and chlorination in separate tanks (“standard treatment”). For both standard (n = 17) and rapid (n = 3) treatment processes, DBP levels in unique parcels of water were tested at 30 min post-chlorination and after 24 h of storage (to simulate what refugees actually consume). DBP levels after 24 h did not exceed the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline limit of 300 ppb equivalent chloroform, either for standard treatment (mean: 85.1 ppb; 95% confidence interval (C.I.): 71.0–99.1 ppb; maximum: 133.7 ppb) or for rapid treatment (mean: 218.0 ppb; 95% C.I.: 151.2–284.8; maximum: 249.0 ppb). Observed DBPs levels do not appear to be problematic with respect to the general population, but may pose sub-chronic exposure risks to specifically vulnerable populations that warrant further investigation.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Characterization of Disinfection By-Products Levels at an Emergency Surface Water Treatment Plant in a Refugee Settlement in Northern Uganda

Ali

Arnold

Liesner

et al. 2019

Water

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“…Humanitarian agencies generally use centralized batch chlorination for water treatment in settlements for refugees and internally displaced persons 5 . This treatment method entails dosing an experimentally-determined amount of chlorine solution into a known volume of clear water, and allowing adequate retention time to allow disinfection to proceed to completion.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Effectiveness of emergency water treatment practices in refugee camps in South Sudan

Ali

Fesselet

2015

Bull. World Health Organ.

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ObjectiveTo investigate the concentration of residual chlorine in drinking water supplies in refugee camps, South Sudan, March–April 2013.MethodsFor each of three refugee camps, we measured physical and chemical characteristics of water supplies at four points after distribution: (i) directly from tapstands; (ii) after collection; (iii) after transport to households; and (iv) after several hours of household storage. The following parameters were measured: free and total residual chlorine, temperature, turbidity, pH, electrical conductivity and oxidation reduction potential. We documented water handling practices with spot checks and respondent self-reports. We analysed factors affecting residual chlorine concentrations using mathematical and linear regression models.FindingsFor initial free residual chlorine concentrations in the 0.5–1.5 mg/L range, a decay rate of ~5x10-3 L/mg/min was found across all camps. Regression models showed that the decay of residual chlorine was related to initial chlorine levels, electrical conductivity and air temperature. Covering water storage containers, but not other water handling practices, improved the residual chlorine levels.ConclusionThe concentrations of residual chlorine that we measured in water supplies in refugee camps in South Sudan were too low. We tentatively recommend that the free residual chlorine guideline be increased to 1.0 mg/L in all situations, irrespective of diarrhoeal disease outbreaks and the pH or turbidity of water supplies. According to our findings, this would ensure a free residual chlorine level of 0.2 mg/L for at least 10 hours after distribution. However, it is unknown whether our findings are generalizable to other camps and further studies are therefore required.

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The characteristics of the external‐electrode mercury fluorescent lamp for backlighting liquid‐crystal‐television displays

et al. 2003

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Abstract— A reliable external‐electrode mercury fluorescent lamp (EEFL) has been developed for backlighting a liquid‐crystal‐television (LC‐TV) display. This involved the investigation of the EEFL characteristics and the improvement in the construction of the EEFL and drive waveforms, in the frequency range of 50–200 kHz, that affects the EEFL characteristics. The results showed that a sinusoidal waveform is suitable for driving the EEFL, and EEFL's voltage decreases when the frequency of the drive waveform is increased.

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Chlorination for International Disasters

Cited by 3 publications

References 0 publications

Characterization of Disinfection By-Products Levels at an Emergency Surface Water Treatment Plant in a Refugee Settlement in Northern Uganda

Characterization of Disinfection By-Products Levels at an Emergency Surface Water Treatment Plant in a Refugee Settlement in Northern Uganda

Effectiveness of emergency water treatment practices in refugee camps in South Sudan

The characteristics of the external‐electrode mercury fluorescent lamp for backlighting liquid‐crystal‐television displays

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