Childhood Gender Nonconformity, Bullying Victimization, and Depressive Symptoms Across Adolescence and Early Adulthood: An 11-Year Longitudinal Study

Abstract

Objective Childhood gender nonconformity has been associated with increased risk of caregiver abuse and bullying victimization outside the home, but it is unknown whether as a consequence children who are nonconforming are at higher risk of depressive symptoms. Method Using data from a large national cohort (N = 10,655), we examined differences in depressive symptoms from ages 12 through 30 years by gender nonconformity before age 11 years. We examined the prevalence of bullying victimization by gender nonconformity, then ascertained whether increased exposure to abuse and bullying accounted for possible increased risk of depressive symptoms. We further compared results stratified by sexual orientation. Results Participants in the top decile of childhood gender nonconformity were at elevated risk of depressive symptoms at ages 12 through 30 years (for females, 0.19 standard deviations more depressive symptoms than conforming females; for males, 0.34 standard deviations more symptoms than conforming males). By ages 23 to 30 years, 26% of participants in the top decile of childhood nonconformity had probable mild or moderate depression versus 18% of participants who were conforming (p < .001). Abuse and bullying victimization accounted for approximately half the increased prevalence of depressive symptoms in youth who were nonconforming versus conforming. Gender-nonconforming heterosexuals and males were at particularly elevated risk for depressive symptoms. Conclusion Gender nonconformity was a strong predictor of depressive symptoms beginning in adolescence, particularly among males and heterosexuals. Physical and emotional bullying and abuse, both inside and outside the home, accounted for much of this increased risk.

Gender Atypicality and Anxiety Response to Social Interaction Stress in Homosexual and Heterosexual Men

“…The finding regarding gender atypicality was consistent with previous research showing that higher levels of self-reported gender non-conformity are linked to higher levels of self-reported stress and anxiety among both homosexual and heterosexual males, above and beyond sexual orientation (Alanko et al, 2009,Lippa, 2008Rieger & Savin-Williams, 2012;Roberts et al,2012Roberts et al, , 2013. While this study did not examine mechanisms, one reasonable hypothesis is that gender-atypicality leads to higher lifetime rates of experiencing rejection and victimization.…”

“…Some have suggested that what places homosexuals at risk is less their sexual orientation per se and, more, their gender nonconforming behavior (Rieger & Savin-Williams, 2012;Roberts, Rosario, Slopen, Calzo, & Austin, 2013). Research has shown that homosexual men are more likely to exhibit atypical gender behaviors such as dressing, speaking or walking in an effeminate manner (Lippa, 2000(Lippa, , 2005(Lippa, , 2008Rieger, Linsenmeier, Gygax, & Bailey, 2008).…”

Non-binary and binary transgender youth: Comparison of mental health, self-harm, suicidality, substance use and victimization experiences

“…Stotzer, 2009), but the present study extends this to nonbinary youth. A general population study found that the relationship between gender nonconformity during childhood and depressive symptoms in early adulthood was partly mediated by caregiver abuse (Roberts et al, 2013). The relationship between childhood gender conformity and gender identity, child abuse and psychological problems requires investigation in gender minority samples, including nonbinary individuals.…”

The Relationship between Depressive Symptoms and Obstructive Sleep Apnea in Pediatric Populations: A Meta-Analysis

“…65 Obese children are often bullied and can have associated decreased mobility, thus, presenting with higher levels of internalizing symptoms secondary to their appearance (each of which can lead to the other). 66,67 More severe OSA was found among obese children than normal-weight children with OSA and those with PS. 57,68 Depressive symptoms were also significantly higher in the obese group than the other 2 groups.…”