Childhood gender identity change: Operant control over sex-typed play and mannerisms

Atypical Gender Development and Psychosocial Adjustment

“…These boys are more acceptable to both male and female peers when they overcome their deficits in masculine behavior and their inhibitions toward androgynous behavior, and reduce the frequency of feminine behaviors. Improved general social adjustment and peer relationships have been reported for gender-disturbed boys who have made such a transition with intervention (Bates, Skilbeck, Smith, and Bentler, 1975;Rekers, Lovaas, and Low, 1974;Rekers, Willis, Yates, Rosen, and Low, 1977;Rekers, Yates, Willis, Rosen, and Taubman, 1976;Rekers and Varni, 1977). The data suggest that much of the emotional hardship suffered by gender-disturbed boys would be reduced if the range of their behaviors was increased, and their repertoire included a reasonable balance between "masculine" behaviors and "feminine" behaviors.…”

Behavior Therapy: A Survey of Procedures for Counselors

“…Gender identity is another area in which positive reinforcement has been successfulIy used (Rekers, Yates, Willis, Rosen, & Taubman, 1976). We worked with parents to treat a young boy who by age 5 had a history of such crossgender activities as female dressing and playing with objects and toys preferred by females, and who had verbalized his desire to be a girl.…”

The Assessment and Treatment of Gender‐Disturbed Boys by Guidance Counselors

“…These sources include parental and teachers' reports, school playground and classroom observations of masculine and feminine behaviors, psychological testing, and parent and child interviews. In addition, guidance personnel should request that the parents have the child evaluated by a pediatrician to ascertain whether the child is suffering from any biological abnormalities (Rekers, Yates, Willis, Rosen, & Taubman, 1976).…”

“…Differential social reinforcement, whereby masculine behavior is shaped with contingent positive social reinforcement and feminine behavior is extinguished by withdrawal of social attention, has been successfully applied in modifying sex-typed play and feminine verbal behavior (Rekers, 1972;Rekers, Lovaas, & Low, 1974). Response cost procedures (based on token economies) and verbal prompts have as well been effectively introduced in modifying feminine mannerisms (Rekers, Yates, Willis, Rosen, & Taubman, 1976). In addition, discrimination training in which the child is taught to self-monitor and selfreinforce masculine play has also resulted in masculine behavior gains (Rekers & Varni, 1977;Varni & Rekers, 1975).…”